The CHAPTER 4. The WORLD of STARS

Problems of this book does not include in-depth consideration of physics of stars. Here we shall adduce the general review of processes, which happen in them.
       Already from childhood we get used that the stars world, surrounding us, is astonishing us by diversity. The research shows it with the help of of telescopes, that this variety is even more impressive. In main this variety is determined, at first, what age we see them , secondly, what mass of a star is. So the masses can differ from the 100-th shares of a mass of the Sun, up to tens masses of the Sun.
       Basically, the life of stars is identical. At first the gas and dust from interstar spaces ( hydrogen - in the main) is condensing, then, by the  gravitational compression, the huge hydrogen full-sphere (Fig. 2а) will be formed. In accordance with its compression, the pressure at centre of this full-sphere is increased and temperature is simultaneously increased. This effect is familiar to all, who pumped up by the manual pump the bicycle or football camera, and some, probably, and from a school rate of physics remember, that such isentropic compression.
        When temperature will reach magnitude about hundred millions degrees, the nucleuses of atoms of hydrogen begin to be integrated and to turn in helium (so-called reaction of a proton - proton cycle). The thermonuclear synthesis begins and the star (Fig. 2Б and В) is lighting up. This main state of a star, in which it is, while all hydrogen will not burn out. In such status there is also our Sun.

A	Б	В	Г	Д
Fig. 2

              When the hydrogen in main will be burned, the star will still more compressed, the temperature in its centre still will increase and the reaction of synthesis of carbon from helium will begins. Then the helium incorporates with carbon and the nucleuses of oxygen, then more and more heavy elements down to  iron will be synthesised. Iron - stable element. Energy is selecting neither from of synthesis, nor from of decomposition. Therefore life of a star on it also is finished. However character of passing of these processes differs depending on mass of a star.

If the mass of a star is less 0,85 from a mass of the Sun, the hydrogen  is burning out during tens billions of years. Therefore even those from them, that have appeared  after appearing of our galaxy, is shining now and will be shining still very longly. The stars from 0,85 up to 5 masses of the Sun with a different velocity are passing evolution, in finish of that  throw off the cover as planetary mist (stage Г in a Fig. 2 and Photo 7) and  are turning in as the white dwarf (Fig. 2Д).  As to rather of not numerous massive stars, with a mass more than five masses of the Sun, the character of their evolution (is significant  faster, than at of the small mass colleagues) will differ  from described above. Majority from them will end the existence by grandiose explosion, which is occasionally observed by the astronomers as the phenomenon of a flash of a supernew star. 
       In an outcome of such explosion will be neutron star and, less often - black hole, which is fast evaporating. The example of consequences of such explosion is shown on a Photo 8. In both cases, the substance which has been thrown out by explosion, is converting as the mist object. The mist object are rather fast dispersing in the space. These mist object consist in main of hydrogen. So, the star-shaped population of our Galaxy, as well as other galaxies, consists of two main classes of stars - stars of a transitional type and stable type.

To first class   the giants are concerning, to the second type of a star of a main class (similar to our Sun), red dwarfs (with masses is significant smaller than at the Sun), white dwarfs and neutron stars too.
       The stars of the first class exist so short time, that the influences for origin of planetary systems  do not have. Therefore we shall not stay on their consideration. 
      On stars of the second class we shall stay a little bit more in detail. So, the red dwarfs it basically same stars as well as our Sun, but are much less than it on a mass. There burns out hydrogen, turning in helium. But the processes of this transformation go much more slowly, therefore time of their life is those, that until now even those still shine from them, which were born still shortly after Large explosion. They also hardly can accept noticeable participation in formation of planetary systems. 
       The stars similar to our Sun, are the main population of a galaxy. Consider, that they take part about 90 % from all stars. Time of their life, approximately 15 billions of years. Age of our Sun - approximately 7 billions of years. Before explosion as a new star remained about 7 billions of years. So that we hardly should be afraid of such catastrophe in near future.
      Radius of the Sun - 696 000 kms, mass - 1,99 × 1³³ г, average denseness 1,41 g/sm ³ . Temperature on a surface of the Sun - 5806 K (K - degrees on Kalvin. 0 degrees on Kalvin is equal -273 degrees on Celcius).
      When the thermonuclear reaction in a star will be completed by iron, the last chord of its life - explosion and turning  in to the white dwarf, neutron star or black hole, depending on an initial mass. Our Sun to be turning in the white dwarf, and will throw from itself the planetary mist.
      The white dwarf consists in main of iron. It  strongly compressed. The radius of it approximately 5000 kms, that is  on sizes is approximately equal to our Earth. The denseness it about 4*10⁶ g/sm³ , that is such substance in four million weighs more, than water on the Earth . Temperature on a surface of it - 10000K. The white dwarf very slowly cools down and is existing down to end of the world.
     The neutron star is compressed to such volume, that the nucleuses of atoms merge in a superhuge nucleus. Therefore it is named neutron star. It as though consists of one neutrons. The radius it is up to 20 km. A denseness at centre - 10¹⁵ g/sm ³ . The mass it, and consequently, and gravitational field is a little bit more than the Sun, but sizes - approximately as small asteroid.
      As to black holes, they rather fast evaporate. What with them happens further, the science unsufficiently knows. Let's suppose, that having evaporated, it simply disappears and on a possibilitys of formation of planetary systems does not influence.
      The white dwarfs and neutron stars, in connection with their sizes and concerning low temperature, it is difficult to detect, therefore total number of stars can approximately be calculated by a stars of a main class as similar to Sun. Is calculated, that our Galaxy has a diameter of 100 000 light years. The average thickness it is 6000 light years. From this, the number of stars reaches - 10¹⁰ . The Galaxy does one turn around centre on 180 millions years. The average velocity of movement of a star concerning other stars is approximately 30 km /s.
      Now amount of galaxies in the universe is evaluated by number in 200 millions. Thus, the number of stars in the universe can be evaluated by number in 2 × 10 ⁸ × 10 ¹⁰ , or in 2 × 10 ¹⁸ .                       
      Taking into account, that from time of Large explosion has passed about 20 billions of years, and the time of life of a star of a main class - 15 billions of years, is possible to suppose, that the first generation of stars already has turned in the white dwarfs. And then the amount of the white dwarfs can also be accepted same 2 × 10 ¹⁸ . The amount of stars with a mass, sufficient for formation of neutron stars, makes less than 10 % from stars of average sizes. But they pass the evolution faster. Therefore is possible to suppose, that number of neutron stars approximately as much, how many and white dwarfs.
      The average distance between stars depends from a position in a Galaxy. In central area the denseness of stars is much higher, than in spirals. If to consider contents of an imaginary orb, at which centre there is our Sun, with a radius per 50 light years, we can include about a thousand of stars, known to us. It is simple to calculate, that the average distance between them is equal approximately to five light years. It, certainly, very approximate figures. But for our purposes it is possible to be guided and by them.
      And now we shall proceed to consideration of a problem of origin of planetary systems.

THE CHAPTER 5. A PLANETARY SYSTEM

In itself planetary system of the Sun is investigated very well. And not only by methods of an observant astronomy, but also direct researches with the help of of interplanetary automatic stations.How it is arranged, we know very much even not bad. But, how it has arisen, the uniform judgement is not present until now. But from the point of view of search of extraterrestrial civilizations it is the very important problem.
     On stretch of the last three hundred years, beginning from  Rene Decartes (1596 - 1650), some tens cosmogonic hypothesises were expressed, in which the diversified variants of an early history of a Solar system are considered. The theory considering an origin of a planetary system, should explain the following: 1) why orbits of all planets lie practically in a plane of solar equator, 2) why planetsmoving  on orbits that close to circular, 3) why the direction of the circulation round the Sun uniformly for all planets and coincides a direction of rotation of the Sun and own rotation of planets round the axeses, 4) why 99,8 % of a masses of a Solar system are on the Sun, and only 0,2 % on planets, whereas the planets have 98 % of a moment of momentum of all solar system, 5) why the planets are divided on two groups sharply distinguishing among themselves in an average denseness, 6) why the substance of planets has such large relative amount of chemical elements from iron and heavier, switching on and uranium, 7) why until now reliably does not detect planetary systems   at other stars?
      Three hypothesises are resulted more often:
      1) The planets was formed from same gas-and-dust cloud, as Sun (Kant),
      2) This cloud was seized by the Sun during the circulation around centre of a Galaxy (O.J.Shmidt), and  
      3)   It was separated from the Sun during  evolution of it  (Laplace, Jins etc.). However any from these hypothesises on all above-stated problems does not answer. We therefore shall try also to invent the hypothesis.
      As is known, about 30 % of stars enter into multiple systems, more often into double one. We can suppose, that  7 billions of years back, a double star-shaped system  was generated, where a smaller star was the Sun. Other star was much more, therefore it fast has passed the evolution and has blown up, as a supernew star and was turned in a neutron star. Then this neutron star for some reason was desroyed. The unique reason of it destruction was collision with dense enough object, which hardly was other  body, except for as the white dwarf - iron star.
      The white dwarf passed so close by a system the Sun - neutron star, that was seized by their gravitational field. During their mutual rotation, neutron star and white dwarf were so pulled together, that or have collide, or the gravitational field of a neutron star was so deformed, that it has lost stability. The grandiose explosion has followed.
       Were desroyed both neutron star, and white dwarf. Probably, and Sun had got some damage. The part it of a corona was broken. It is unconditional, that the products of explosion have acquired such velocities, that 99 % of percents have abandoned neighbourhoods of the Sun. And only about one percent of central area of explosion remained in the field of gravitational influence of the Sun, having form of the disk of a debris, different magnitude and gas.
      Further, under an pressure of a solar wind the gas component was pushed out to a rim of the disk. The debris at first was moving on a different elliptic orbits. But, colliding and being integrated with other debris, to acquire orbits closer to circular. And being integrated, the debris become planets. Further on a hypothesis of Shmidt. In the final account, the planets were generated. And, more long-distance were formed by condensation of hydrogen and its junctions (methane) and nitrogen on rigid small peripheral planets.
       Such hypothesis answers all problems above mentioned. Including on a problem about is anomalous the high contents of heavy elements in substance of planets. Really, the white dwarf consists in main of iron. And we have a lot of iron in entrails of planets. The neutron star, has been destroyed, was generated all spectrum of elements of the Mendeleev table , including uranium. This hypothesis explains also origin of meteorites, and also comets. It is known for example, that the meteorites represented by two main kinds - iron meteorites (5,7 %), stone hondrits (85,7) and stone ahondrits (7,1 %). And the iron meteorites have a crystalline structure, which can be generated in entrails of object by a radius of 100-200 km. That is to be large asteroids. The same sizes had also objects, from which were derivated also stone hondrits. That is they were derivated from bodies, which were in turn derivated from residuals of the white dwarf and neutron star.
      Such catastrophe, as circumscribed above, is exclusively a unusual occurrence. A little bit later we shall calculate probability of such event. At least and now we can understand why planetary systems so seldom can meet, that, till now they reliably are not detected.
       Now (not in scale) the planetary system has approximately such kind, which is represented in a Fig. 3.  The debris of desroyed stars placed in area from a Mercury up to Jove, where planets of a terrestrial type were generated.

Further, on the basis of small iron-stone planets was condensed gas component, pushed aside on a periphery of a system by a solar wind. After explosion not everything, certainly, the residuals of stars have acquired orbits in the field of an ecliptic. But the large part, colliding during an almost billion of years  has defined orbits of planets lying on the average in a plane of an ecliptic. And the small part until now rotates on most different orbits, forming an orb of comets.
      In area between Mars and Jove, the debris until now, by virtue of the laws of a celestial mechanics, could not generate a planet, and have derivated an asteroids belt.
     How the collisions of a debris of the blown up stars happened, it is possible to observe and until now. You see a falling on the Earth of meteorites and dust until now proceeds. Depending on a ratio of velocities and masses of a debris, they not only were integrated in planets, but also has been destroying, generating small meteorites. Embryo of planets, on all visibility, were the largest debris of the white dwarfs, size from hundreds up to a thousand of kilometers. Even having generated, the planets moved on orbits not absolutely circular (and now they not so circular, and faster elliptic). Therefore they could approach rather closely to each other. On all visibility it was the reason of emerging of moon, but on it we shall stay a little bit later. Now we shall stay more in detail what is in our planetary system.
     Mercury. On the sizes this planet, nearest to the sun, only by little is more than moon. The radius of it is equal 2437 km. It goes round the Sun on prolated elliptic orbit. Therefore it that comes nearer to the Sun on a distance 45,9  bln.km, is deleted from it up to 69,7 bln.km, making a full turn-over for 87,97 day. The day on a Mercury is equal 58,64 terrestrial day, and the rotation axis is perpendicular to a plane of its orbit.

In midday temperature on equator reaches 420°С, night it decreases up to - 180°С. The average denseness of a Mercury is equal 5,45 g/sm² . The atmosphere practically is not present. The surface of a Mercury is generous scattered by craters (Photo 9). In general, the Mercury is very similar to moon. Certainly, there are no basis to assume, that on this planet the life is possible.  
     Venus. It is the planet, nearest to us, been wrapped up by clouds, long was a planet of riddles. Now we know about it the following: an average radius - 6052 km; a mass in shares of a mass of the Earth - 0,815; an average distance from the Sun 108,21 bln.km, or 0, 723 astronomical units (astronomical unit is equal to an average distance from the Earth up to the Sun - 149,6 bln.km); cycle time 224,7 terrestrial day; the period of rotation round an axes - 243,16 day, that is day on Venus is a little bit more, than year. It is interesting, that in maximum rapprochement with Earth, Venus appears   turned by the same side to the Earth. Besides this, a direction of rotation round an axes is back to directions of rotation of other planets.
      Is installed, that the atmosphere of a planet consists on 97,3 % of carbon dioxid. Nitrogen there are less than 2 %, oxygen - there are less than 0,1 %, water vapor - less than 1 %. Temperature near to a surface makes 468°С, pressure - 93  ± 1,5 атм. The thickness of a cloudy cover reaches  30 - 60 km. The magnetic field at Venus is absent. The water on a surface, naturally, is not present. But there are mountains and mass of craters. A surface we can see, due to snapshots made with the help of   stations   "Venus - 9"  ( Photo 10).

 Availability of craters speaks, at first, that they were derivated in that epoch (at the beginning of shaping planets), when atmosphere was not. Secondly, that the processes of erosion of a surface of a planet are expressed very poorly. It speaks that life on Venus is not present and never was.
       Further. We shall speak about the Earth separately, and further we shall look at Mars.
    Mars. The planet Mars almost is twice less than the Earth on sizes ( The equatorial radius of Mars is equal 3394 km) and in nine times - on a mass. Mars is on an average distance 228 bln.km from the Sun and are rotating round it for 687 terrestrial day. Day on Mars almost same as on the Earth - 24 hours 37 minutes. The plane of equator is inclined to orbital plane of a planet under an angle 25° , due to this a regular change of seasons, similar that is on Earth, is here.

Two thirds of a surface of Mars take the light areas which have received in the past a title of continents, about one third - dark sites called as the seas. Near to poles the autumn will derivate of a white spot - polar caps vanishing in the beginning of a summer. Temperature on equator of a planet changes from +30°С  in midday up to - 80°С in midnight. Near to poles it reaches  - 143°С. Is established, that the pressure at a surface of Mars on the average in 160 times is less, than pressure on a sea level for the Earth. The atmosphere of a planet in main consists of carbon dioxidal - 95 %, and also 2,7 % of nitrogen etc.
     Main component soils of Mars - кремнезём, containing impurity (up to 10 %) гетит - hydrates of oxides of iron. They add for a planet a reddish color. The surface of Mars in many respects reminds a lunar landscape (Photo 11). It huge territories scattered by craters, both meteoritic, and volcanic. The volcanic activity for a long time was completed. When the volcanic activity was active, there was more dense atmosphere and the water was, why until now have remained the river bottoms. This period was rather brief and unsufficient for formation of life. Therefore life on Mars is not detected, including with the help of of stations "Viking". On all visibility the life also there never  was.
     Jove. It is the largest planet of a Solar system. There is it in 5,2 times further from the Sun, than the Earth, and receives from it in 27 times less heat. The mass of Jove is twice more than a mass of all remaining planets taken together, in 317,84 times more than a mass of the Earth and in 1047,6 times less than a mass of Sun. The equatorial radius of Jove is equal 71400 km. As the day on equator of Jove lasts only 9 hours 50 minutes, the operation of a huge centrifugal force has reduced the polar radius of Jove almost on 2500 km that is less than equatorial, and this compression of a planet for observations is rather noticeably.
      Average denseness of Jove (as well as other planets of the giants) about 1g/sm³ . From here follows, that in main it consists of hydrogen and helium. Atmosphere of Jove is contained 60 % of molecular hydrogen, about 36 % of helium, 3 % of a neon, about 1 % of ammonia and as much of methane. The relation of concentration of helium and hydrogen corresponds to structure of solar atmosphere.
    Characteristics of Jove is the large Red Spot, which sizes 13 000 - 40 000 km, which already are observed at least 200 years. Suppose, that it is a high-power atmospheric curl. The kind of Jove on snapshots made by automatic interplanetary station "Voyager-1" is shown on a Photo 12.

Temperature of a surface of Jove is equal   - 170°С. Apparently, Jove consists of a small silicate nucleus, rigid hydrogen-helium shell and high-power extended atmosphere, at which bottom the hydrogen and the helium can be in a liquid status. Near Jove 13 satellites, from which four - Io,  Europe, Ganimed and Kallisto - were open by the Galilei and on the sizes and mass they are similar to Moon. Remaining  in 50 - 100 times are less.
      It is quite categorical possible to declare, that life on Jove is absent.
      Saturn.Saturn (Photo 13) is the second-largest giant among planets of a Solar system. It the equatorial radius is equal 59 900 km, and mass in 95 times more mass of the Earth. From here follows, that the average denseness of Saturn is only 0,7 g/sm³. It testifies that the planet in main consists of hydrogen with impurity of helium.
    One turn-over round an axes Saturn makes for 10,25 hours. Therefore it is flattened. As Saturn is on a distance 9,58 astronomical units from the Sun, the stream of a solar energy come per unit of a surface in 90 times less than on the Earth and consequentlysurface of planet is heated up to temperature only - 180°С.

Saturn has  the 10 satellites and system of rings consisting of hoarfrost. Sixth under the account, satellites of Jove - the Titanium has a diameter of 5830 km and is the largest satellite in a planetary system. It is enclosed by atmosphere from methane and ammonia. The life neither on Saturn, nor on the satellites certainly is present.
      Uranus. Uranus is moving round the Sun as lying: the declination of an axes of its rotation to orbital plane is - 8°. Therefore direction of rotation and planet and its satellites is as though converse. Temperature of a planet does not exceed magnitude - 200°.  The ammonia at such temperature is already in a rigid status. Therefore atmosphere of a planet consists of methane and hydrogen.
       Distance from Uranus up to the Sun - 19,14 astronomical units. Cycle time round the Sun - 84 terrestrial years. An average radius of 24 540 km, mass in shares of a mass of the Earth - 14,59.
         The life on Uranus, naturally, is not present.
       Neptune. The radius of Neptune is equal 25 270 km, mass shares of a mass of the Earth - 17,25. A distance from the Sun 30,2 astronomical units. Time of the circulation round the Sun - 164 years. The atmosphere consists of hydrogen and methane. Temperature of a surface is less - 200°С. There is a satellite Triton with a radius about 3000 km, is moving round  the Uranus in the opposite direction.
      Pluto.A radius of Pluto is 1280 km. An average denseness - 1,25 g/sm³ . Distance from the Sun - 40 astronomical units. Cycle time round the Sun - 248 years. In essence it is the snow ball that consist from ammonia, methane and hydrogen. He has satellite, that snow ball is smaller. About life here and to speak there is nothing.
     Certainly, on the indicated figures it is difficult to present true scales of a Solar system. And even to draw it in scale it is rather inconvenient. But even approximately to present as really looks  Solar system, we shall make that. Let's present, that the Sun has a size of a football ball. Then the Mercury will be magnitude with poppy grain on a distance of 30 meters from the Sun. Venus will be magnitude about the match head, on a distance of 50 meters. The Earth, also by magnitude about the match head, on a distance of 75 meters. Mars, in half of match head, on a distance of 100 meters. Jove, magnitude about a cherry, on a distance of 300 meters. Saturn, hardly is smaller than a cherry, on a distance of 750 meters. Uranus, with cherry grain, on a distance of 1.5 kilometers. Neptune, same as Uranus, on a distance more than two kilometers. And, at last, Pluto, magnitude again with poppy grain, on a distance of three kilometers. And it yet not all. If in same scale to present where fly comets, it will be of kilometers up to a thirty.  
     Now, we imagine, that such a Solar system. In it there is a lot of variety and various features, that it is completely impossible to understand as these features have appeared if to recognize that a system of planets has arisen from a gas-dust fog. The abundance of comets, meteorites, difference in directions and rotation rate of planets etc. simply shouts that in the beginning of shaping of a planetary system the processes of a disastrous character happened.
     After we were acquainted with a planetary system as a whole, we shall proceed to our dear planet the Earth, to our common house.
                 And now we shall proceed to ours Earth

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