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The age of imperialism came upon the united states in the 1890s, a culmination economic forces, international competition, and our own traditions of manifest destiny and christianity.
The term "Imperialism" refers to one state's domination and exploitation of another (without defining whether this domination and exploitation is military, economic, strategic, racial, or cultural in nature). The exact nature of imperialism depends largely on the motivations of the state and from what angle we study it.
During this period in world history, there were no recognized negative connotations to the idea of imperialism. It would only be during the 20th century that it will finally acquired negative implications. After World War I, President Wilson (a proponent of liberalism, nationalism, and capitalism) will strike at Imperialism, changing the way everyone looks at it.
There are two great schools of thinkung concerning the American adventure into Imperialism in the 1890s.
Argues that the period between 1865 and 1890 was a period of irolation. Reconstruction, westward expansion and Native American pacificationn kepy America busy. There were only sporadic attempts to acquire other territories during this period (Haiti, Cuba, and Panama). A tradition of anyi-colonialism and isolation had developed.
Then something happened in the 1890s to create a great aberration for a decade, before returning to the standard American isolationist policies.
A theme of constant territorial expansion was a reality of the American existence from its very beginnings. The 1890s represented a fevered high point in these expansion activities. This decade represented a transformation from continental expansion to overseas expansion.
Revisionists have introduced the concept of the open empire (economic and social imperialism as opposed to formal colonial or imperial relationships). The revisionist thesis says that up until the 1890s, American expansion had been one of continental expansion. During this period it transformed into an economic imperialism.
The nation had a well-developed and ingrained habit of expansion built into its character that made it easy to keep moving once the coast was struck.
The US needed markets for its goods and resources of raw materials.
This was during the industrial revolution, and in America, the age of Tycoons and Robber Barons. Industrialists ruled the west. They needed resources and a market for their goods, and colonies couldrovide that.
They held out the idea that imperialism would benefit the backward countries we colonized, since it would bring them industry, technology, and a modern economic system.
A strongly nationalistic state.
The Hierarchy of the Races.
The neo-scientific concept that it is the strongest and the most superior race and culture that will dominate the world, and that it is the responsibility of those with the superior culture to spread.
Social Darwinism applies the concepts of survival of the fittest and natural selection to human societies and nations. It is a philiosophy of international relations advocated by William Sumner, and Josiah Strong (author of "our country").
This philosophy explains fitness and natural selection in terms of race and nation, applying to them concepts of superiority and inferiority. This was an idea eagerly adopted in the US, Germany, France, and Japan. It beleived in the rightness of the domination of "fit" cultures over those "unfit" for self-government.
It defined those nations who were strongest economically and militarily as the fittest. If a culture is so weak that it cannot defend itself from others, than it is by its very nature corrupt and inferior and will fall to the superior cultures/nations.
Navalism was an idea authored by Alfred T. Mahan, a naval historian. It held that economic power and a strong navy were what made a nation great. The navy is necessary to protect the markets, raw materials, and merchant marine necessary for a strong economy. Thus a strong navy and naval bases are required to maintain a strong economy and guarantee economic expansion. This concept was popular throughout the US, Germany, and Japan.
The world was becoming less separated. America could no longer hide behind the Atlantic. Trade and treaties were a necessity that drew the world even closer together. There was a frantic race by western powers to colonize and control the world, and America was being left behind while the economic strength of her rivals was growing.
Attempts by European powers to regain control of colonies in the Americas led to confrontations with the U.S. fleet, which more and more considered itself the policeman and guardian of the western hemisphere, acording to the Monroe doctrine.
There was a new imperialism throughout the world, a surge overseas in search of land and markets and resources. A competitive scramble for colonies and concessions.
The foreign policy public of the period was small. Of the 12-14 million voters, 10% to 20% were aware of or concerned with foreign policy. They were the wealthy, well-read, well-educated, urban dwellers of the northeast. Few people outside of that limited category were concerned with US foreign policy. Thos epeople largely received their information through newspapers, journals, and magazines.
The foreign policy establishment of the time, the leaders of thought on foreign policy, were journalists, big business leaders, academics, missionaries, and politicians. These people dominated foreign policy. They were the opinion makers. And their eyes were always on England, where most of the US elite were educated.
The recent tradition of English anti-colonialism disappeared during this period. They became colonialistic, and the American foreign policy elite followed along. The US imperialists stepped forward. The anti-imperialists let themselves largely disappear. Those traditionally ani-imperialist aristocratic families were also traditionally pro-British; the events in England confused them, and imperialists managed to attain dominance in the policy chaos. The passionate imperialists appeared out of this chaos, offering simple, emotional appeals (Roosevelt, Mahan, and others).
Journalists competing in what is known as Yellow Journalism for subscribers brought every evil of the world home, along with rediculous sensationalism. They aroused the public sentiment.
Samoa was sought as a naval base. The US competed with Britain and Germany for these islands. In 1879 the three governments came up with a tripartite protectorate in Samoa. Germany eventually (1884) monopolized the islands.
In 1887, the tensions peaked and a naval confrontation developed, destroyed by a Hurricane. Only the British ships survived.
In 1889, the US annexed the island of Tituila (Pago Pago). The three powers divided up Samoa.
The French and Americans competed for Hawaii.
Reciprocity treaty (1875)
Hawaii was granted the right to sell duty-free sugar in the US. In return, the Hawaiian King agreed not to make any territorial concessions to any nation but the US.
The economy of Hawaii depended on sugar exports.
There was a migration of US citizens to Hawaii, as missionaries and to take advantage of the profit potential of Hawaii's sugar industry. These American immigrants devloped an anti-annexationist attitude toward the US, since Hawaiian independence allowed them to employ cheap chinese labor.
Pearl Harbor (1887)
McKinley Tariff Act (1890)
This act destroyed the Hawaiian advantage in sugar sales, allowing caribbean states to start selling duty-free sugar to the US as well. As a result, the US was flooded with cheap sugar. The Hawaiian sugar industry was hit hard, causing unemployment and social unrest.
The McKinley Tariff Act also gave US sugar producers a bounty. Now Hawaiian sugar planters wanted to be Americans again, and began seeking a way to get Hawaii annexed by the US.
Queen Liliukalani
She revised the Hawaiian constitution in ways intended to empower the native Hawaiian population and keep power out of the hands of foreigners.
The Hawaiian "Revolution" (1893)
American Foreign Minister to Hawaii Atevens ordered a marine landing. The US Marines took over the government building and captured the Queen in a coup-de-tat called a revolution. The American sugar producers then requested annexation by the US.
President Cleveland sent a commision led by Congressman James Blount to investigate the situation. The commision concluded that without US Marine interferance there would have been no revolution. Cleveland did not ratify the treaty of annexation, but neither did he put the Queen back on the throne. He sent the problem off to congress and assumed a hands-off policy.
Annexation (July 1898)
President McKinley finally carried out the annexation of Hawaii, right in the middle of the Spanish-American war. Hawaii became a convenient bridge to the newly conquered philippines. It would be a defense on the Pacific and a road to the China market. The ressolution passed easily. The stated reasons for the annexation were two:
A test of the Monroe Doctrine.
Cleveland's advocacy of the Monroe Doctrine. Make Britain recognize the legitimacy of the Monroe Doctrine as the law of the western hemisphere.
Boundary Dispute
Venezuela and British Guiana were involved in a dispute concerning their borders. The US offered to conduct an international arbitration of the dispute.
Outcome
The British recognized the Monroe Doctrine and US supremacy in the Western hemisphere. The US and Britain began the gradual process of devloping a strong coalition.
Britain was facing conflict in South Africa against the Boers and did not want to be fighting the US at the same time.
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