Cultural Points of Interest

A Paradox                    

For centuries, Germany as a country did not exist. The peoples who make up the German nation lived where they live today, but the country consisted largely of small, independent units. The differences between the peoples were, and still are, great. Asked to sum up Germany as a country, some people simply claim that it does not exist.

First there is the language. Throughout the provinces, a vast variety of words is used to describe the most common objects. More than mere dialect, this reflects the local nature of German thinking. Many youngsters leaving home to visit another part of Germany have to abandon the vernacular and use Hochdeutsch, the nation's lingua franca, to communicate. Traveling out of one's region can be like going on a trip abroad.

Like all widely spoken languages, German has various dialects. Plattdeutsch (Low German) -- which covers a number of dialects descended from Old Saxon, one of the main early forms of German -- is spoken roughly north of a line (die Benrath-Linie) from Aachen in the west, through Cologne and Kassel, to Wittenberg and Frankfurt-an-der-Oder in the east. To the south of this line the dialects spoken are forms of Hochdeutsch (High German), descended from Old High German, the other ancestor of the modern language. However, there is a standard official German language, known as Schriftdeutsch (written German). This was the creation of Martin Luther, who evolved a compromise language from the current dialects for his translation of the Bible. When spoken, the standard language is inevitably affected by local the dialects. This spoken version is called Umgangssprache (colloquial speech).

As with language, so with loyalties. Germans talk lovingly of their Heimat, or local area. This emotional attachment is felt by Germans of all ages. The notorious German lust for power of the past does not tally with this world where the small unit is the most important -- the club, the choir, the Stammtisch (the regulars' table in a pub, labeled as such and respected).

How, then, to explain the determination of the eastern Länder to join with the west and form an even bigger national unit? The nation-state is a compromise. Easterners have stressed, since unification, that they feel more attached to their surroundings than to some bureaucracy in Bonn or Berlin. The general attitude is that there has to be a bureaucracy -- vital in a truly world-class city -- but let it get on with its business and leave individual parts of the alliance that is  Germany in peace. That is the measure of the new Germany, which has grown from an understanding of the errors of the old Germany. The emphasis on home, hearth and locality is natural in a nation for which dogmatic imperialism is a bitter memory.

Food                                

Sausage, sauerkraut, beer, coffee and delicious cakes come to mind as typical German fare. And, yes...sausages come in hundreds of varieties, while cabbage is consumed quite frequently, along with large quantities of potatoes. These stereotypical images are, as one might expect, only a small part of the picture. The reality is much more varied and adventurous.

There are some staple menu items: Kaffee und Kuchen (coffee and cake) is a favorite afternoon snack. Beer is found in a variety of forms, from Pilsner to Berliner Weisse (a beer with a sweet syrup added to it), to Alsterwasser or Radler (a beer mixed with lemonade). Local wine is a welcome addition to a hearty German meal. Visitors to Germany are often surprised at how well prepared German food is and at its variety. A visit to the food department in Berlin's giant KaDeWe department store or the elegant Alois Dallmayr store in Munich will bear this out. In the KaDeWe's sixth-floor food department, with its special high-speed elevator that stops nowhere else, there are over a thousand varieties of German sausage to be found. German cooking is reputedly heavy, but the country's restaurant scene has recently been invaded by die neue deutsche Küche, which features creative and tasty dishes using traditional German ingredients.

For many Germans, breakfast may include a boiled egg, muesli and yogurt, but more probably bread with cheese, jam and/or cold meats. Lunch, the main meal of the day, could include a juicy Schnitzel (cutlet, usually pork) plus roast potatoes and a salad. Dinner (Abendbrot) is often a cold and lighter meal of bread, a larger variety of meats and cheeses than at breakfast, and, in colder weather, perhaps a soup or small stew. German desserts are almost always fruit- or cream-based dishes. Bread is an important ingredient in German cuisine. The amount of bread consumed by most Germans will astound visitors, and the variety and amount of textured, heavy, dark brown breads in the bakery is amazing. It is said that there are about 300 varieties of bread baked daily in German.

Music                                

The homeland of Bach, Beethoven, Brahms, Wagner and Stockhausen, among many other of the world's musical geniuses, Germany has a reputation for nurturing musicians and composers -- a tradition centuries old that survives today. Visitors will find a wealth of musical events, from the historic and classical to modern, up-to-the-minute rock. Among the joys of a trip to Germany are evenings at the Berlin Philharmonic, the Hamburg Opera and Munich's National Theater (the home of the Bavarian State Opera), which offer some of the best orchestral sounds and operatic productions to be heard and seen anywhere in the world.

The German love of music and traditional folk songs can be traced back to pre-Christian tribal times. By the end of the 15th century, with the widespread use of the newly developed organ in churches, national interest and support for classical music blossomed. In the 16th and 17th centuries, with the reformation and the flowering of the Lutheran chorale, musical excellence was associated with churches. At this time, vocalists, choristers, organists, instrumentalists and their directors worked as professionally paid musicians. By the 18th century, court patronage was an important source of employment for musicians. German Baroque music began to flower in such geniuses as Handel, Telemann and Bach. At the same time, musical theater was developing in Vienna, and the German Singspiel became the rage. At the peak of the Singspiel's popularity, Mozart wrote his last opera, Die Zauberflöte (The Magic Flute), and German opera came of age. Beethoven produced his major romantic symphonies and his only opera, Fidelio, soon after this time. Romanticism was in the air in Germany in the 19th century. After Beethoven came Schumann and Mendelssohn, then Brahms and Liszt. Also in the 19th century came Richard Wagner, who transformed German national folk tales into powerful Romantic operas. German music suffered a setback in the mid-20th century, under Nazism, when all Jewish music was banned. However, since the war the avant-garde, headed by Karl-Heinz Stockhausen, has pioneered new musical forms.

Health and Fitness            

Health in Germany is a national obsession. Foreigners living in the country remark at how often they are told by Germans that certain foods, certain activities and many prescribed drugs are "not good for you." But the German view of health is not usually negative. Good health is seen as an attainable goal, and Germans tend to take a more positive, active approach to staying healthy. With doctors and pharmacists prescribing homeopathic drugs, and people cycling to work on specially designated pathways during the week or enjoying long hikes in the woods and forests during the weekends, it is no wonder that the average life expectancy in Germany is one of the highest in Europe.

The best place to study this pursuit of good health is at the Kurort, or spa town. Spas are dotted all over Germany, from seaside towns to the Bavarian Alps. Usually, they have a giant bathhouse where anyone can take the healing waters. In most other countries in Europe, spa towns have become relics of the 19th century, but German spas are kept alive by the nation's long-standing tradition of allowing its citizens six-week vacations, in addition to normal leave entitlements (employees are expected to use some of this time to rest and recuperate). A generous medical insurance scheme allows doctors to prescribe fully paid spa treatments for a variety of ailments, so people are often able to extend their stays with sick leave. Besides the baths, today's modern spa resorts offer such amenities as golf, tennis, horse racing, casinos, boating and skiing. A typical spa treatment might include a mud bath or hydrotherapy, saunas and steam treatments, all followed by a wrap in warm blankets and a compulsory rest.

Although most visitors will be able to participate in the sports of their choice when visiting Germany, the three national favorites seem currently to be soccer, skiing and tennis. While many young German children are often allowed to take inexpensive skiing vacations through schools, church groups and other youth organizations, the nation's craze for tennis seems to stem from world-famous champions as Steffi Graf, Boris Becker and Michael Stich. Soccer, as in nearly all European countries, is the national sport, and locally sponsored teams are found all over the country. Its popularity surged even more in 1990, the dramatic year in which Germany saw unification and won the World Cup.

While so many Germans seem to be interested in good health and fitness, one irony is the number of people who are constantly lighting up. The anti-smoking lobby has hardly taken off in Germany, and a campaign to ban smoking in public places has had little effect. Restaurants are rarely divided into smoking and non-smoking sections in Germany, while movie theaters depend heavily on cigarette advertising. Even more peculiar are German sports and fitness clubs, where it is not uncommon to see people participating in heavy aerobic activities, only to light up minutes afterwards to help them relax.

Politics and Economy       

The Federal republic of Germany came into being in 1949 and has proved remarkably durable, being responsible for bring the West German people from a state of near ruin to their present prosperous condition. It has seen the collapse of the Communist system in the former GDR, has absorbed that state, and is now struggling to bring equal prosperity and democracy to the whole of Germany.

The German political structure is based on its constitution -- the Grundgesetz (basic law), which includes human rights guarantees. It is often used as an excuse for inactivity by German politicians, although it has been amended more than 30 times. During the Gulf War of 1991, politicians in Bonn argued that they could not commit troops outside NATO territory without changing the Grundgesetz.

The German parliament has two chambers. The Bundestag, the lower chamber, carries more weight in decision making. It is directly elected to a four-year term, though the government can call an election earlier after referring to the federal constitutional court. The Bundesrat, the upper house, represents all 16 German Länder. Delegates are chosen by the Länder and always include state prime ministers. Under the Grundgesetz, the Bundesrat approves all laws that affect the states. The German chancellor, the leading figure in German politics, is not directly elected but holds the office as leader of the majority party in the Bundestag. The post of federal president is mostly ceremonial and the president is elected for a five-year term of office. Germany's judicial system is led by the Bundesverfassungsgericht (constitutional court), which has two chambers: one dealing with individual liberties and the other with political issues. Each court contains eight judges, elected by he Bundestag and Bundesrat. In Germany, the system of proportional representation allows every voter two votes: one for a constituency candidate and another for a political party. Any political party is excluded from the Bundestag if it polls less than 5 percent of the party list vote. this effectively keeps out independent candidates and extremist groups.

The rapid development of the economy after near total collapse at the end of World War II (der Wirtschaftswunder) transformed West Germany and gave its citizens the highest standard of living in the European Community (EC). This was despite strong bureaucratic controls that seemed to discourage private enterprise, minimal emphasis on customer service, relatively little use of high-tech equipment (although much of Europe's advanced technology is produced in Germany) and a telephone system that claims to be the best in the world but simply does not live up to the boast. Some experts say economic success was due to aid programs, such as the American Marshall Plan. Sociologists suggest that most Germans just wanted to forget the past and rebuild their country. They made sacrifices, and today's generation is reaping the benefits. With the absorption of 17 million people from the former GDR and the world recession in the early 1990's, the miracle began to fade. As the economy stagnated, unemployment climbed -- particularly in eastern Germany as it moved from a "command" to a market economy.

Literature and Philosophy   

A strong tradition of stories and poetry undoubtedly existed in the German language long before written literature. The one tantalizing glimpse of this that was written down is the Hildebrandslied (The Lay of Hildebrand), a 9th-century fragment of an alliterative heroic poem. Otherwise, the earliest German manuscripts were of a religious nature, written and preserved as part of the Christian monastic tradition of learning. By the 12th century, literature had passed from the monasteries to the courts. German versions of French romances, such as the tale of Tristan and Isolde and the Arthurian stories, were written. In about 1200, tales of the hero Siegfried took form in the anonymous Nibelungenlied. Minnesang (lyrical love songs) also flourished in the 12th century.

The literary renaissance Martin Luther's translation of the Bible (1534) is generally regarded as the first great modern German work of literature, but it was not until the 18th century that German writings -- notably those of Johann von Goethe and Friedrich von Schiller -- reached a level of comparable with that of the Middle Ages. A meeting between Herder and Goethe let to the Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) movement. Weimar, where Goethe and Schiller spent much of their lives, became synonymous with their writings -- Schiller's poetry and many dramas, and Goethe's dramas (notably Faust), novels, poetry and philosophical works.

The German Romantic movement started around 1790. It had a profound effect throughout Europe and Romantic ideas dominated German literature up to the mid-19th century, with "folk" poetry and tales being an important element. The poet and political radical Heinrich Heine marks a transition from Romanticism to realism. Contemporary life became the theme of writers at the end of the 19th century, as in the stories of Gottfried Keller and Theodor Storm, and the plays of Gerhart Hauptmann.

At the turn of the century, there was a reaction to naturalism in the Nietzsche-inspired poetry of Richard Dehmel and the aestheticism of Stefan George. The greatest German poet of the 20th century was undoubtedly Czech-born Rainer Maria Rilke, whose intense poetic world was spun almost entirely out of his own psyche. Another Czech-born 20th century giant was Franz Kafka, whose novels shed a grotesque and often absurd light on human experiences. The novelist Thomas Mann explored the contrast between solid bourgeois insensitivity and the fragile world of the artist. In 1947, Gruppe 47, a group of politically left-wing writers, was formed. Some of its own members have gained international status, including Heinrich Böll (winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972) and Günter Grass, best known for The Tin Drum. Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) espoused a philosophy that was a form of early existentialism. His ideas had great influence in Germany in the first half of this century. Notable among writers of the former GDR are the innovative dramatist Bertolt Brecht, who died in East Berlin in 1956, and the novelist Christa Wolf.

Art and Architecture                

The first architectural style to emerge in medieval Germany -- the Romanesque -- owed much to he traditions of Rome. The Rheinland has relics of Roman buildings, notably at Trier, where the great Porta Nigra, a gateway in the Roman city walls, still stands. The Roman basilica (meeting hall) inspired many Romanesque churches and cathedrals.

Romanesque and Gothic: Fine cathedral arose during the 11th to 15th centuries: Romanesque Speyer, Mainz and Worms, then the soaring Gothic splendors of Bamberg, Cologne, Ulm and Freiburg. Sculpture in stone and wood was used to complement architecture. Painting, too, often done anonymously, can be seen in altarpiece panels and manuscript illuminations.

Renaissance: In the late 15th to the early 17th centuries, architecture took a back seat as the influence of the church waned and the wealthy middle classes asserted themselves. Many notable buildings show Italian influence. Some of the great names of German art belong to this time, including the Renaissance painter, draftsman and engraver Albrecht Dürer and the mystical painter Matthias Grünewald. In this period Lucs Cranach the Elder painted the portraits of the leaders of the Reformation, and the two Holbeins, Elder and Younger, were prominent.

Baroque and Neoclassicism: The17th and 18th centuries arguably produced very few distinguished German artists, but saw a brilliant age of Baroque architecture by Lukas von Hildebrandt, Balthasar Neumann, Andreas Schülter and others. During the Age of Enlightenment, Frederick the Great employed Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff to help design official buildings for Berlin, and the Prussian capital continued its prominence as an architectural center into the 19th century, as the Neoclassicism of Karl Friedrich Schinkel made its mark.

Romanticism: As in music and literature, the trend toward Romanticism is seen in art and architecture in the 19th century. Otto Runge and Casper David Friedrich, who worked in Dresden, were the finest of the German Romantic painters. In architecture, Romanticism is found to an almost absurd degree  in castles built for King Ludwig II of Bavaria: the Baroque-style Linderhof, the mini-Versailles of Herrenchiemsee and the "Disneyland" Neuschwanstein.

The Modern Age: At the end of the last century, many German painters adopted the Impressionist style of France, and painters such as the portraitist Max Liebermann had strong support from the emerging German bourgeoisie. Jugendstil, the German form of Art Nouveau, was emerging. By the beginning of the 20th century, the Expressionist school was in full swing with the founding in Dresden and Munich of Die Brücke (The Bridge) and later Der Blaue Ritter (The Blue Rider) groups. This historic era inspired powerful works -- some hauntingly apocalyptic, others wonderfully comic expressions of everyday life. After World War I, the Bauhaus (literally, Building House) movement developed. Its founder in Weimar, Walter Gropius, envisaged cooperation between art and industry, and the name Bauhaus became synonymous with austere functionalism. Nazi hostility led to its dissolution in 1933; members of the movement settled in other countries and continued to influence architectural developments. Today German painters are again prominent figures   in the international art world. The current German movement, influenced by the flourishing avant-garde interpretations of social and cultural life in a prosperous modern society, has been referred to as Neo-Expressionism. Postwar Germany's best-known artists include Georg Baselitz and Anselm Kiefer.

Why Learn German?

Studying German can help a student lead a more successful life. Finance, career enhancement, travel, heritage, personal enjoyment, and human services include some of the areas enriched by the study of German.

Business and Career Enhancement

International business is crucial for the economic health of the US. The Federal Republic of Germany is American's largest trading partner in Europe and its third largest partner in the world. More Europeans are native speakers of German than of English, French, Italian or Spanish. As a language of business, diplomacy, and tourism in Western Europe, it stands second only to English, and in the East it holds first place. Much of the language's current importance stems from the Federal Republic's economic status. It has the third-highest GNP in the world, is the second highest creditor nation, and every year occupies one of the top three spots among exporting countries. Its publishing industry, which ranks #3 in the world (behind Britain and China), produced 36% more new book titles in 1995 than did the United States.

Education

Learning German helps students achieve higher SAT and ACT scores. At the University of California, more majors require the study of German than other languages (German 56 majors, French 43 majors, Spanish 21 majors, Japanese 7 majors). Among many academic programs requiring or recommending German are: anatomy, art history, biochemistry, biology, biomedical physics, botany, chemistry, design, engineering, film studies, genetics, linguistics, logic and methodology of science, molecular biology, music, near eastern studies, philosophy, physical science, physics, physiology, religious studies, and zoology to name a few.

Nobel Prizes

The significance of German extends well beyond economic considerations. A review of Nobel Prizes shows that scientists from the three major German-speaking countries have won 21 in Physics, 30 in Chemistry, and 25 in Medicine, while many laureates from other countries received their training in German universities. Nine Nobel Prizes in Literature have been awarded to German and Swiss writers, and seven Germans and Austrians have received the Peace Prize.

Travel

Travel is an industry for pleasure and finance. More than 25% of all foreign tourists visiting the US come from German-speaking countries and Germans have money to buy products while they travel. The German speaking countries are also among the most popular destinations for American travelers. If you travel to Japan and you do not get along with English, try German: 68% of all Japanese students learn German. In the countries where Americans most often do not know the language (e.g., Turkey, Greece), a knowledge of German can be helpful. Guest workers returning home from Germany are a good resource, because you can communicate with them in their second language (German). Travel all over Europe is easier with a knowledge of German. According to the German Foreign Office, German as a foreign language is becoming increasingly important in the countries of Middle and Eastern Europe. Eastern European Elementary school students chose German (49%) over English (44%). The number of German students in the Czech Republic rose 33% in the past four years now that Russian is not required. Many countries gear up for the German tourist, so wherever you may land in Europe, you are likely to get by with a knowledge of German. Since 1945, more Americans have lived and worked in Germany than in any other country in the world. There are still American military personnel stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany. Many also have their families with them.

Heritage

As Americans, we are often interested in our roots and the land of our ancestors. Twenty-five percent of all Americans claim German ancestry.

Health and Human Services

Almost half of all US pharmaceuticals come from Germany and Switzerland. Medical research continues to thrive in Germany and many companies in the U.S. have affiliates in German speaking countries. Germany's educational system is a leading model for our current emphasis on school-top-trade partnerships and mentoring as well as the dual system. It is the source of our oldest educational traditions: kindergarten, education for the deaf, technical training, universities and graduate school.

Sports

Even in the world of sport, German-speakers figure prominently. Germany accumulated the second-highest total number of medals in the 1996 Olympics while also winning the European Cup in soccer for the third time. In addition, the Federal Republic won the highest total number of medals in the 1998 Olympics. In the history of World Cup soccer, Germany has reached the finals more often than any other country, and only Brazil has won the title more often. Tennis is of course another sport at which Germans excel, and athletes from the German-speaking countries traditionally dominate alpine skiing to the extent that German is the sport's primary language.

Personal enjoyment

Personal enjoyment includes many areas and German continues to offer much for this topic. Students studying music are helped greatly by knowing the language of the great composers and by visiting their homes, walking in their towns, and woods, etc. Beethoven's 6th Symphony, for example, was written near Vienna. The performance of such a piece is more accurate, if the musician has heard the animals, the brook, or the storm. An artist who has eaten Viennese food and talked with Austrians has a better understanding of Beethoven and feels a stronger connection with his music. German literature is rich and abundant. Many of the world's best authors are German and reading their works in the original language is a richer experience. In the Encyclopedia Americana there are 14 pages devoted to German literature, 13 to French, 8 to Spanish and 6 to Japanese.

The "Why Learn German?" Top Ten Reasons

The importance of German may not seem as obvious to Americans because we are separated from the rest of the world by ocean. We tend to notice only what's in our own backyard. Worldwide, German is among the most popular foreign languages to learn. The world sees the importance of German. We really do live in a global society and must look at more than what is immediately around us. We need to see the entire picture.

Sources: American Assoc. of Teachers of German, Dartmouth College, National Council for the Social Studies, St. Olaf College, Univ. of St. Thomas, US News & World Report, World Book Encyclopedia

Historical Points of Interest

An Emerging Germany

The first identifiable permanent settlers in the area that is now Germany were Celtic tribes in the 8th century BC with the Rheinland being a key area of production in their industrial society. However, new forces were developing in Europe. The Roman Empire was expanding and the Germanic peoples were on the move from Scandinavia. Germanic tribes moved to lands east of the Rhine and north of the Black Sea, and their invasions and periodic uprisings created instability within the Roman Empire. Roman attempts to push across the Rhine failed to establish permanent occupation. They ended in 9AD. After reaching the Elbe, the Romans were pushed back by German tribes under the leadership of Arminius, who destroyed three legions.

Rise of the Franks -- By the time of Constantine, when the empire's capital shifted to Byzantium in the east, Roman rule was beginning to break down. After the introduction of Christianity by Emperor Constantine, the Roman Empire disintegrated and the area that is now Germany was overrun by the Franks. When Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800, Frankish influence stretched across most of Europe. Civil was followed Charlemagne's death. The Treaty of Verdun in 843 split the empire into a Latin western section, and a Germanic eastern part was led by Ludwig the German. Ludwig's appointment marked the emergence of a German identity.

The Saxon Ascendancy -- In the 10th century, the area came under the rule of the Saxons. Otto the Great was faced with invading Magyars from the east and a growing threat from duchies and principalities inside the eastern empire. After defeating the Magyars in 955, Otto strengthened his ties to the papacy, which led to church dominance over a large part of the country. In 962, Otto was crowned Holy Roman Emperor.

The Power of the Princes -- The influence of powerful dynastic German families increased steadily. By the 13th century, the Holy Roman Emperor had little power against feudal princes. Many began to push eastward, conquering Poland and setting up German communities in areas now in Russia and Romania. In 1356, the law regulating the election of an emperor (the Golden Bull) was introduced, based on the votes of four noble and three ecclesiastical electors, excluding the papacy. In the 15th century, the Habsburgs were elected Holy Roman Emperors, and they retained the title until it was abolished some 400 years later.

A Strife-Torn Germany

In the 16th century, Germany was suffering under a greedy and powerful aristocracy that appropriated land and held the oppressed peasantry in serfdom. This, alongside an equally grasping and cynical church trading in "indulgences," led to the religious upheaval of the Reformation in the 16th century. Discontent with the church authorities increased Martin Luther led accusations over corruption, nailing his "95 theses," an attack against papal abuses, to the door of Wittenberg church in 1517. Luther was excommunicated but politically powerful German princes were able to protect him from sentence of death.

Century of Conflict -- After publication of Luther's translation of the Bible, the oppressed in Germany were ready to revolt. The Peasants' Rebellion of 1524-1525 brought destruction of church properties but was put down by princely armies. The period of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation created more than a century of strife between Catholics and Protestants, and by the early 17th century, Europe was embroiled in the Thirty Years' War. Many battles were fought on German lands, bringing extensive destruction. Negotiations to end the war began in 1643, culminating in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The treaty ended the conflict, reduced the status of Holy Roman Emperor and began the decline of the House of Hapsburg, while giving power to more than 300 principalities and other territories.

The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia -- By the end of the 17th century, a power in the area of Brandenburg-Prussia emerged. The Hohenzollern family, who held the Electorate of Brandenburg, defied the laws of the Holy roman Empire and assumed the title of kings of Prussia with Frederick William, the Great Elector, being the first. The dynasty consolidated itself in the early 18th century. Under Frederick the Great, the third Hohenzollern king, Prussia rose to be one of the dominant European powers by the middle of the century. Despite liberal laws at home, Frederick asserted Prussia's military authority and, after going to battle with Austria over Silesia, engaged in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). Frederick annexed much of Poland and established Prussia as a counter power to Austria. Prussia's power was tested during the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, but in the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, Napoleon was defeated by the armies of Britain, Hannover and Prussia. The Congress of Vienna, which met that same year and created the Deutscher Bund (German Confederation), established Prussian dominance among some 40 states in the German world, alongside Austria.

German Unification -- Now Germany began to experience the pains of the industrial revolution. Economic reforms and customs unions were introduced to ease the strains caused by the many protective borders in the German region. Also, a wage-earning class as well as a bourgeoisie emerged. Uprisings in 1848 demonstrated how serious the demands for the dissolution of an older political order in Germany were becoming. In 1862, Prussia's Wilhelm I chose Otto von Bismarck as his chancellor. Within a decade, Bismarck united Germany under Prussian leadership. After a war with Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein in 1864, and the Bohemian War with Austria in 1866, all the German states north of the river Main were united. To gain the support of German southern states (i.e., Bavaria and  Baden-Württemberg), Bismarck provoked a war with France. After the Franco-Prussian War ended in 1871, Germany was united as the Second Reich, with King Wilhelm of Prussia as Kaiser.

World War I -- Bismarck then embarked on a number of liberal domestic reforms, as well as creating alliances with Austria and Russia. After Wilhelm II (grandson of the British Queen Victoria) succeeded to the imperial throne, these alliances were tested. British and French suspicions were aroused by Germany's huge expansion of its navy. The two powers, allied with Russia, stood against the alliance of Germany and Austria in 1914, when World War I broke out over Habsburg claims in the Balkans. Germany's defeat was hastened by the entry of the United States into the war.

Germany as a Rising Power

Germany's humiliating defeat in World War I was followed in 1919 by the founding of the Weimar Republic, based on a democratic constitution. That same year, Germany's new leaders were forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles, marking a radical shift in the European balance of power. It called for enormous war reparations as well as the confiscation of and withdrawal from territories that Germany had controlled, in some cases, for centuries. Unemployment and inflation hit Europe after World War I, and in almost every country political movements on the extreme left and right began to gather strength and make themselves heard.

The Rise of the Nazis -- During he 1920's and early 1930's, Germany suffered galloping inflation. Due to the lack of central political strength in Germany, elections in 1930 allowed extremist parties to gain prominence, most noticeably the Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler. this attracted the unemployed and destitute, and industrialists and other wealthy groups who saw the party's authoritarian policies as a return to the order that the country had known under the last Kaiser. Adolf Hitler gained more power and was made chancellor by the republic's president, Paul von Hindenburg, in January 1933. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag, the nation's parliament building, was set on fire, an incident orchestrated by the Nazis. Hindenburg declared a state of emergency.

The Road to War -- The Nazi Party became the only legal party in the country, and Hitler became president as well as chancellor. Democracy was suppressed under Dr. Joseph Goebbels' propaganda ministry. Many horrors occurred during Hitler's Third Reich. Jews were persecuted and murdered. The government and education systems were perverted. many of the nation's most talented people -- may of Jewish origin -- emigrated, and gradually the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were nullified. Hitler's plan for Europe became well understood, but the West was not ready to stand up to him until 1 September 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. Two days later, Britain and France declared war.

World War II and Its Aftermath -- The war and the vicious activities of Nazis against Jews, Slavs and others are well documented. At first the war went well for the Nazis, but their invasion of Russia in 1941 proved a turning point. Defeats in North Africa and at Stalingrad followed in 1942 and 1943. A German resistance movement developed among the top army leadership and attempts were made on Hitler's life. Germany was totally defeated, and in 1945 Hitler committed suicide. The legacy of the Third Reich and World War II will be a burden to Germany for decades to come. Six million Jews murdered in concentration camps have not been easily forgotten by the world. Those leader held responsible were put on trial for war crimes and crimes against humanity in addition to the civil service being purged of all Nazi sympathizers. The victorious Allies divided Germany into four occupied zones under Soviet, U.S., British and French control. Two separate political systems later emerged. In May 1949, the territories occupied by the British, American and French were combined to form the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG); four months later, the Soviets created the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The two Germanys rivaled each other for more than 40 years, each trying to rebuild a nation out of the ruins and rubble of World War II. They came to represent the Cold War division of Europe, formalized by the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961.

The Years of Division -- Throughout the Cold War period, both Germanys built strong economies. West Germany's economy became Europe's strongest, while East Germany's industriousness made it the most prosperous and productive country in the eastern bloc's economic alliance. By the 1970's, many Germans accepted the division, though they hoped that Germany would be reunited. Unofficial recognition of the division occurred in the Ostpolitik policies of Willy Brandt, when he became chancellor in 1969. Nevertheless, West German political parties, while attempting to work with the leaders of the GDR on some economic and social programs, still insisted that unification was the ultimate aim. By the mid-1980's, however, many West Germans dismissed the idea.

A Reunited Germany

On 9 November 1989, the momentous decision to open up the Berlin Wall was made. East Germans had spent days and nights peacefully demonstrating for political rights. The communist East German regime no longer had the steadfast military supports of its closest ally, the former Soviet union. The government of the GDR finally gave way and opened up the points in the Wall, allowing its citizens to step over into West Germany. Some had never seen the West in their lifetime, but most had conjured up a picture in their minds from television programs that had been beamed across the barbed wire.

One Germany -- Within months,a new democratically elected federal government had been set up, with the task of uniting East and West Germany. At first, people thought the process would take several years, but the government moved quickly to merge the two economies, providing East Germans with Deutschmarks on 1 July 1990. The East German economy began to deteriorate as a result of the inability of the nation's industrial base to compete with the western production standards. The Federal Republic's ruling coalition was compelled to move quickly and absorb the territory of the former East Germany into the republic much faster than had been expected. On 3 October 1990, after more than four decades of division following Germany's defeat in World War II, a dream came true for many Germans -- the country was reunited.

After the Euphoria -- The political leaders in east and west called on the nation to work together and to avoid treating the former East Germans as second-class citizens. Sadly, the Wall still exists in many people's minds. Those from the east continue to complain that their country was simply annexed by the west, and accuse the West Germans of arrogance, while Germans in the west are angry that their taxes have been increased to pay for German unification (despite repeated assurances by Chancellor Helmut Kohl that this would not happen). Concerns about high levels of unemployment in the eastern area has spurred violence against foreign refugees and immigrants to Germany. In 1990 some particularly fierce violence occurred in areas around Dresden. This has been countered by a number of national solidarity movements, but many social scientists claim that until the economy in eastern Germany has stabilized and East Germans fully appreciate the ways of democratic life, social unrest in eastern Germany will continue. t the same time, neo-Nazis from the west canvassed for new members and the number of attacks against foreigners and Jewish memorials continued unabated. Even Germany's politicians in Bonn, aware of the country's Nazi past, failed to act quickly enough to stem the racist and fascist elements that began to emerge following reunification.

Return to Berlin -- With unification, the federal government was faced with the important question: should the seat of government remain in Bonn, the former capital of western Germany, or return to Berlin, the historical seat of the German government? Parliament was besieged with concerns about the costs, questions about the necessity of such a move and fears that a return to Berlin could rekindle old German militaristic attitudes about German leadership in Europe. Finally, it was agreed that, despite the enormous costs, the government was obliged out of respect for German history to return to Berlin. In the meantime, infrastructure development (i.e., roads, telephones, electricity, the cleanup of the environment and economic integration of the new areas) has become the main focus of the federal government's policy. Special federal taxes have been introduced to pay for the very costly work.

The European Goal -- Since the Federal Republic of Germany (i.e., West Germany) was founded in 949, German national policy has passionately supported European integration. At first through common agricultural and trade policies, and now through economic and political integration. German politicians have used the banner of the European Community as a standard for the next generation. this policy is often at odds with the other European countries, particularly Britain, and some opponents fear German dominance of the Community. Others argue that European unity is needed to prevent the rise of extremist movements -- the neo-Nazi riots that took place in Rostock in 1992 fueled this argument. In any event, the German government wholeheartedly supports a politically unified Europe.

Milestones in German History

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Last modified: June 16, 1999

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