Invasions of Britain in 55 and 54 BC

On the afternoon of August 27, 55 BC Julius Caesar is standing on the beaches of Deal on the coast of Britain. What does he do? Well he decided to stay naturally. Caesar had gone there barely prepared for war but didn't expect or want it. He had expected the tribes of Britain to surrender to him without a fight. Remember he had conquered all of Gaul in 5 less than 5 years. What resistance could the isolated Britons offer against him? Well they tried to keep Caesar from getting ashore and now that he made it the tribes began to submit. If their best effort could not prevent a Roman invasion how could they possibly fight two Roman legions on land. In the rules of war Caesar could do what he wanted the British had promised peace and now had attacked. They had also put Caesar's aid Commius the Altrebatian in irons. He of course was immediately returned to Caesar at this point. Over the next 4 days the tribes of the southeast of Britain continued to surrender to the Romans. On the night of August 31, during a full moon, the Roman cavalry in their 18 ships were in sight. Surely Caesar was glad to finally see them, since they missed the tide to reach Briton with the rest of the troops. No proper reconnaissance could be made without cavalry. Howerver just as the winters of Russia protected her from invasion the waters and weather of the English Channel saved Britain. A storm arose before the 18 ships could anchor safely and the strong northerly winds forced the ships and the 500 cavalry back towards Gaul. Some were blown to the west and started to take on water. All eventually had to return to Portus Ulterior (Ambleteuse). Caesar's ships on the beach were also being badley damaged as many of the anchor lines broke and the ships were dashed onto the shore. Also no food supplies for the winter were brought along. So now Caesar's position was precarious at best and his men began to fear with good reason. Now the chiefs of the area met and discussed the matter. They now through divine luck and poor Roman weather forcasting, had the advantage. The Romans didn't even have proper camp equipment either. The chiefs decided to renew war and convince the Romans that attacking Britain was hopeless afterall. However they blundered at this point as they didn't send the promised hostages to Caesar, so Caesar was immediately suspicious. He used wood from 12 damaged ships to repair the rest, and also gathered corn from the immediate area to feed his men who certainly had by now gone through anything they brought along. Some day in the first week of September one of Caesar's legions is foraging and the other is working in the camp. The camp guards report that many men are approaching. Caesar sent 2 cohorts totalling 960 men to intercept whomever they were. He ordered the other 8 cohorts to get ready to follow him. When he marched up to the area he found his legion and 2 cohorts under attack. The British had ambushed them while they were reaping corn and they had many chariots and cavalry. Caesar describes how the British fight by using chariots. When Caesar arrived the British began to relent and the Romans fought back. It was probably a fighting retreat for a while as the Romans moved back towards the beach. It rained for the next several days and of course this gave the British even more time to call up more reinforcements. Caesar knew that his reputation was on the line and must of thought that all he could do now was give the British a good Roman style fight to show he was no pushover and then get out of there before he did meet total disaster. That is exactly what Caesar was forced into doing. The British gathered a huge force and marched up to the Roman camp.

Caesar was ready. He was a soldier and understood the British intentions well and organized his legions into combat formation and attacked the British at the beach. Now it was Roman military discipline that counted. The legions with their short swords must have cut down rank after rank of British men. They simply couldn't take it and ran as they had no armour that compared to the legionaries. Those who fell were slain where they lay. The Romans then burned everything they could in the area and came back to their camp. The British leaders now came to negotiate with Caesar. He demanded the number of hostages to be doubled and that they would leave immediately with him for Gaul. With good weather and tide the Romans set sail just after midnight. The equinox was close so it was probably just about September 15.

This first expedition to Gaul is considered by many historians to be a close disaster. It was in a way but that is from a standpoint of an army that is invincible. Caesar used the correct strategy to save himself and his army. His pride was probably the most damaged thing of all. His lack of planning and logistic support ,which is completely non-Roman in character, caused an indecisive outcome. It also exlplains why he was so determined to return to Britain.

Caesar's ships arrived in Gaul the next day except for two with 300 men aboard. They were off course and landed some distance from Portus Itius. When they got off their ships and marched towards the Roman camp they were met by a few of the Morini tribe. They ordered the Romans to lay down their weapons but the Romans refused. Then 6000 Morini appeared. The small Roman force bravely held them off for 4 hours until word got to Caesar and then the cavalry was sent to save them. When the Roman cavalry arrived the barbarians broke and ran and the Romans chased them and cut them down. The next day Caesar sent Titus Labienus with those legions which he had brought back from Britain against the Morini. The enemy had no place to go and surrendered quickly. In the mean time Caesar's other lieutenants Quintus Titurius and Lucius Cotta led the legions into the territories of the Menapii and laid waste all their lands, cut down their corn and burned their houses. Then they returned to Caesar because the Menapii had all concealed themselves in the forests. Caesar set up winter quarters among the Belgae tribes. Only 2 of the British tribes had sent hostages and he must have had Britain on his mind a lot, but the 55 BC campaigning season was now over. When the Senate in Rome got Caesar's reports on the year's events, they decreed 20 days of thanksgiving celebration, the largest yet. Caesar himself returned to Cisalpine Gaul.

Back in Rome in 55 BC Pompey and Crassus served in their second consulships. However, since this was a political forcing by Caesar, the actual election for the consulships didn't occur until the last year's consuls were out of office. In mid January the election got underway. The only threat was Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Cato's brother-in-law. The two men went out at night to the Campus Martius to get some help from the city cohorts. But Caesar had sent back Crassus' son to Rome with a thousand troops. These men were the sword arms of the Triumvirate. Cato and Domitius Ahenobarbus were attacked. Cato's servant was killed and Cato himself was injured. Domitius Ahenobarbus had to make it back to his house and had to stay there. The day after Pompey and Crassus were elected. Then they manipulated the elections of the lower offices for their supporters. One was Publius Vatinius. He was given the office of Praetor. Titus Annius Milo also was a Praetor. During the year the consuls managed to settle the state down. No large political maneuvering was possible. Pompey tried to curb public bribery by taking the power of the Urban Praetor to choose Senators away. Instead the richest of the rich would hold these positions. The idea was that the wealthy wouldn't bother with bribes. "RIGHT!!" Anyway, Crassus at some point realized that he was being considered an old "has-been" and not a good one at that. He had not held a military command since the Third Servile war against Spartacus. That was 16 years ago. His only big point was that he owned half of Rome. During Sulla's proscriptions, he purchased many of the burning ruins of the city at dirt-cheap prices. This made him wealthy beyond even a Roman's dreams. But this could only take you so far. He had to do something. So three acts were passed. One gave Crassus a 5-year command in Syria, another gave Pompey Spain for 5 years. These two were decided in the "lex Trebonia". Caesar's command was extended for 5 more years under the joint "Lex Pompeia Licinia". The term would run out on March 1, 49 BC. The consular elections for 54 BC were not held in July, but in November. The coalition would be booted out. One reason was the non-use of force. Cato's brother-in-law Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was elected consul along with Clodius's brother Appius Claudius Pulcher. Cato himself managed finally to get his hands on the Praetorship. Crassus then left. But it wasn't easy. The Tribunes tried to hold him back. He needed Pompey's help. Tribune Gaius Ateius Capito publicly dammed the army and Crassus ignored it. He had more religious omens at Brundisium and crossed. The choice of conquest was Parthia, the major state east of Syria. Crassus was banking on rolling over a nation fighting a civil war. But when Crassus left, the political situation there was consolidated with the murder of former king Mithridates III by his brother Orodes, in November of all months. The situation was ripe for surprise. In the meantime Pompey would rule his provinces in Spain through his legates. So ended 55 BC.

Caesar begins his writings for 54 BC immediately with two things; the fact that Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was consul and that he was preparing for another invasion of Britain. Caesar must have been an irritable man in the winter of 55/54 BC. After Caesar finished his winter duties in Cisalpine Gaul he learns that an Illyrian tribe called the Pirustae are attacking his third and somewhat neglected province of Illyricum. The area in question was in today's Albania. Caesar heads out there and raises a proper force. Obviously the Pirustae know about Caesar's successes and immediately claim that the attacks were not an act of their state but that of bandits. Caesar accepts this and requests hostages. On the said day the hostages are delivered up. Caesar heads off to his army via Cisalpine Gaul. During all this Caesar has his ships repaired in the Channel and new ones built to his specifications. It seems he understood the flaws of deep keel ships that couldn't get close to the shore. He wants his new ships to be able to land large amounts of cavalry. So the new ships are low, wide, and have almost a flat keel. This means light and fast landing ships. 600 of these ships were built along with 28 new standard warships. The outfitting was used with Spanish supplies. It was all ready by the time Caesar got to his army in mid May or later. He orders the ships to be brought to Portus Itius (Boulogne)

But as usual Caesar had the mainland Gauls to delay him. This time it was the Treviri. They had the greatest cavalry in all of Gaul so Caesar, who was not to take any risks now, took 800 cavalry and 4 legions to make them give allegiance and hostages. He gets the family members of the tribal leaders placed under his "protection". With that he gets word that all but 40 of his new ships are ready for him. All together they number 800. It in now around June 10.

After waiting 25 days due to strong northerly winds and settling Gallic politics, Caesar sets sail with 800 ships carrying 5 Legions and 2000 cavalry. He leaves 3 legions and 2000 cavalry in Gaul under Labienus. The ships sail at sunset of July 6, 54 BC. The Britons knew of course that Caesar was coming. On the morning of July 7, Caesar was surprised to learn that the fleet had sailed too far to the east due to lack of wind and the tide. Not until mid-day did the ships get to the shore. This time the legions wouldn't have to fight onto the shore. The Britons retreated inland at the sheer size of the invasion. When they got ashore and Caesar began to build the camp. He also captured some Britons and learned of the British army's position. He anchors his ships on the flat shore and leaves 1 legion and 300 cavalry while Caesar begins a 12-mile march during the night towards the British. On July 8 Caesar encounters the Britons in small scale fighting but the British are no matches to push the Romans back. The Britons fled to a hill fort 1 1/2 miles away. This battle was at a ford of the river Stour. This is where Canterbury is today. The 7th legion stormed the fort and captured it. Caesar didn't follow the fleeing British because no knowledge was known of the land. The Romans built their camp. The next day on July 9, the Romans went after the Britons to find out where they were going. But just then a message came to Caesar telling that a storm had again wrecked his fleet. Caesar immediately recalled his troops from their pursuit and headed back to the coast. He finds 40 of his ships destroyed and the rest quite damaged. He sends word to Gaul for Labienus to build as many ships as he could and to send men to Briton to help rebuild his own ships. These damaged ships he has brought to the shore to serve as his rebuilding fort. The legionaries work 24-7 for ten days straight. By July 19, they are done and Caesar decides to head back to the Stour river. The Britons surprise attacks the Romans with chariots. The Romans hadn't fought an enemy like this on land and they had some casualties, among them, Quintus Laberius Durus, a tribune. When Caesar sent an extra 960 troops to help, the enemy fled. By now Caesar has probably learned that the Britons have united under a major British chieftain named Cassivellaunus. He has lands on the Thames river. On July 20 Caesar sends 3 legions out to gather supplies when the British attacked again. They attacked quickly and managed to surround the 3 legions, but Caesar got his other troops to hem in the Britons and trapped the British chariots. The Romans killed more British than they thought they could. This was the largest battle of this expedition. Obviously the British are going to harass the Romans as long as they advance inland. So Caesar decides to advance to the Thames as quickly as he can. It is about 40 miles away. Caesar probably reached the Thames river on the morning of July 23. The Britons are on the other side daring the Romans to cross but Caesar charges his legions following the cavalry across the river and push the Britons away. They flee again northwards. Now tribes of the area surrender to Caesar because they don't like Cassivellaunus. They provide supplies for Caesar's men. Caesar then learns of Cassivellaunus' capital's location. It is near today's St. Albans. Sometime between July 25 and August 1, Caesar attacks the fortified town from two directions, and kills many Britons and captures many cattle. At about the same time Caesar learns that Cassivellaunus had got the four kings of Kent to attack the Romans at the beach camp. The Romans there seemed to have been be ready for him and drove back the attackers killing large amounts of Britons. When Cassivellaunus learned of the attack he lost heart. Many of his inland allies now abandoned him. He sent word of surrender to Caesar. Since Caesar wants to go back to Gaul he forbids and commands Cassivellaunus not to war against the Mandubratius or the Trinobantes, new allies of Rome. Also tribute was to be paid and hostages delivered. When he gets the hostages, he heads back to the coast. It is now probably the middle of August. Finding his ships repaired he decides to send back his army and prisoners in two sailings. After the first many of the empty ships are unable to return so Caesar waits for quite some time, seemingly about 20 days of more. By about September 23, at the equinox, he carefully overloads his remaining vessels and sails in a calm in the evening. The next day at dawn he is back in Gaul. The second Roman invasion of Britain was over.

The second invasion of Britain by Caesar is considered by many to be as useless as the first. The reason for this seems to be due to the lack of political advantage for Rome. But realistically it shows the determination and ambition of Caesar himself. His only real problem was that he didn't find a safe harbor for his ships. Ironically there was one safe harbor known later as Richborough only a few miles north. The Romans wouldn't go back to Britain for 97 years, in 43 AD when it was to political advantage. Richborough was where that invasion landed. Anyway, Caesar showed his ability to command and endure. He was becoming a true legend in his own time. He had in fact invaded a land that was considered by some not to even exist.

But times for Caesar would now drop from this rise. When he arrived back in Gaul he found letters that told of the death of his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife. She died in childbirth probably in the first days of September. The child, Caesar's granddaughter, died a few days later. The messages were about to be shipped to Caesar in Britain. Cicero also wrote to his brother Quintus at this time. From these we learn that messages from Britain reached Rome in only 20 to 25 days. Amazing! Oddly Cicero didn't mention in his letter to his brother that Julia had died. He did say that Caesar was mourning. In Rome the common people took Julia's body and gave her a public funeral in the fields of Mars, the Campus Martius. Obviously the people understood how important the marriage to Pompey was in preserving the peace. Caesar's mother Aurelia also seems to have died during this British expedition. Now he had no family except his sister Julia. He tried to marry his grandniece Octavia to Pompey but he refused. Caesar also had the crazy idea of divorcing Calpurnia and marry Pompey's own daughter. Pompey's refusal of a new marriage alliance shows without any doubt that he was beginning to fear Caesar's growing reputation and wanted to politically distance himself from Caesar. The fact that Caesar continued his campaigns showed he had true stamina.

Getting back to Gaul Caesar has to deal with local business. At Samarobriva he meets with the Gallic leaders to decide what to do for winter quarters. The harvest of 54 BC was weak. It seems all the rain was in the channel harassing Caesar's ships. He decided to split up his legions far and wide in Gaul to more ease the burden of lack of food. Caesar described:

"He was compelled to station his army in its winter-quarters differently from the former years, and to distribute the legions among several states: one of them he gave to Caius Fabius, his lieutenant, to be marched into the territories of the Morini; a second to Quintus Cicero, into those of the Nervii; a third to L. Roscius, into those of the Essui; a fourth he ordered to winter with Titius Labienus among the Remi in the confines of the Treviri; he stationed three in Belgium; over these he appointed Marcus Crassus, his quaestor, and Lucius Munatius Plancus and Caius Trebonius, his lieutenants. One legion which he had raised last on the other side of the Po, and five cohorts, he sent among the Eburones, the greatest portion of whom lie between the Meuse and the Rhine, [and] who were under the government of Ambiorix and Cativolcus. He ordered Quintus Titurius Sabinus and Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta, his lieutenants, to take command of these soldiers. The legions being distributed in this manner, he thought he could most easily remedy the scarcity of corn and yet the winter-quarters of all these legions (except that which he had given to L. Roscius, to be led into the most peaceful and tranquil neighborhood) were comprehended within about 100 miles. He himself in the mean while, until he had stationed the legions and knew that the several winter-quarters were fortified, determined to stay in Gaul".

But the 15 cohorts that were sent to the Eburones' territory would not see the end of winter. When the soldiers under Cotta and Sabinus set up the winter camp, by about mid to late October, 15 days later the camp is attacked by the Eburones. The attack was repelled. Their leader, Ambiorix, tells the Romans that his people forced him to attack. Then he says that a massive attack was to be co-coordinated on all the Roman winter quarters in Gaul. He also said that a huge force of Germans were to arrive in 2 days to aid them. He tells them that they should consider withdrawing from his territory to stand with the legions of either Quintus Cicero, or Titus Labienus, at least 50 miles away. The Roman commanders argue the options. Above all the idea of evacuating their post without Caesar's on the word of an enemy (meaning a Gaul) is dishonorable to say the least. Eventually Sabinus' opinion wins the matter that they are in the greatest danger being closest to the German Rhine area, and a prolonged siege by Germans wouldn't help the Romans cause in a time of food shortage, the decision to march for 3 days to the nearest camp is decided. During the night the Romans don't sleep and the Gauls, the Eburones prepare a great ambush. Two miles from the camp the Romans are marching in a long line and descend into a valley. When they're all there the enemy attacks. The Romans are confused and form a large circle. When any group of soldiers charges the Gauls, the Gauls retreat and the Romans are killed. But the Romans fight to the last man all day long until nightfall. Cotta refuses to meet with Ambiorix to discuss terms. However Sabinus takes his men to meet Ambiorix. He and his men lay down their weapons and Ambiorix has Sabinus killed. The Gauls then charge at the Romans again and break their ranks. The Romans suffer massive losses in the valley. The ones who make it back to the camp fight all night long to the death. Some managed to escape through the woods to Labienus' camp. Only threw these men is this story known. If not these Roman troops would be as infamous as the 3 legions lost in 9 AD. In all 15 cohorts, 1 1/2 of a legion, 7200 men, die. The battle was most likely in early November.

This was a terrible loss for the Romans. Caesar had lost 3/16 of his troops. It could've been politically disastrous for him. Anyway Ambiorix goes to his neighboring tribes to tell them that the Romans can be beaten and they should join him. Many do. They decide to attack Quintus Cicero. When they attack Cicero builds up his camp in one night, even using sick and wounded men. The Gauls feed Cicero the same line they gave Cotta and Sabinus; The legions are under attack, the Germans are coming, if you leave now you won't be harmed. They also tell him that Sabinus is dead. Unlike Sabinus, Cicero won't deal and tells them:

"that it is not the custom of the Roman people to accept any condition from an armed enemy: if they are willing to lay down their arms, they may employ him as their advocate and send ambassadors to Caesar: that he believed, from his (Caesar's) justice, they would obtain the things which they might request."

Caesar decides to winter in Gaul at Samarobriva. He gathers the leaders of Gaul and makes clear his feelings. Most of Gaul remains loyal. Several of the northern tribes were still trying to fight and hire German mercenaries. This continued all winter. The weather must have been quite warmer than normal. Cicero even said mid September in Italy was unbearably hot. On the Julian calendar it was about July 1. Anyway the northern tribes, specifically the Treveri under Indutiomarus from the lower Rhine area, prance their cavalry the most powerful in Gaul, near Labienus' camp daily. Eventually around the end of the year, Labienus got tired and orders the Roman cavalry to attack the retreating Gauls at night and to kill Indutiomarus only. They do so while he's crossing a river. His head is brought back to the camp. Then all the forces of the Eburones and the Nervii which had assembled nearby, retreat. So then ended 54 BC. One hell of a year in Gaul.

Mean while in Rome, there was countless bribery. So much that the price of borrowing money nearly doubled. There were countless legal suits and trials. Cicero was forced to defend his enemy Aulus Gabinius on extortion charges. Also there was a huge election scandal and no elections were held in 54 BC.

Also during this time Crassus and his seven legions had reached Syria in an overland march. In the summer he invaded upper Mesopotamia and crossed the Euphrates river. He took many cities with ease. After capturing Zenodotia, no big achievement, he then decided to let his army rest in Syria for the rest of the year, leaving 14 cohorts to garrison Mesopotamia with 1000 cavalry. In the fall his son Publius joined him with 1000 Gallic cavalry from Caesar. But Crassus spent the rest of 54 BC stealing money wherever he could find it. He really was a 61 year old miser.