HISTORY of THEATER And DRAMA
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CLASSICISM
Classicism, Latin classicus, top-rank Roman citizens. In Western tradition Classical means ancient Greece and Rome, especially its literature, art, architecture and ideals; emphasizing balance (symmetry), clarity (simplicity), moderation (restraint, Aristotle's "mean") In literature and the arts Classical often describes work in set, prescribed forms (classical ballet, music) adhering to traditional standards universally, enduringly valid. Classical Greek artists created perfect balance between motion, emotion; individual, ideal; specific, general. Suffering is expressed within contexts of noble restraint. Classic Greek art: serenity and balance, humanity and lyric harmony, flexibility and relaxation. Balance and order are key. Ideal is full integration, balance between human nature and culture. Classic nonWestern art forms include Japan's classic Noh drama, Chinese opera, and Bunraku, relying on codified styles and standard visual references in set, costume and makeup.
ROMANTICISM
Romanticism, emphasizing passion over reason, imagination and inspiration over logic, favors full expression of emotions and free, spontaneous action rather than restraint and order. Romanticism contrasts with classicism.
FORCES LEADING TO ROMANTICISM
- Growing distrust of reason as the principal tool for achieving man's highest goals.
- Doubting the rightness of existing social and political order increased as rising middle classes prompted reconsideration of distinctions making most men subservient to an aristocratic minority.
- Defining truth in terms of "norms" was replaced by the conviction that truth can only be discovered in infinite varieties of creation. To know ultimate truth one must know as much of creation as possible.
- Since all creation has a common origin a careful, thorough study of any part may lead to a glimpse of the whole. Trees, grass, rivers and mountains reflect something about man, as man reflects something about them.
- The ultimate source of creation is God. Truth is infinite and beyond total comprehension or adequate expression. Therefore it's impossible ever to grasp all of reality, although one may and should continually try.
- The person most capable of grasping and expressing truth is the genius. Rules constrain true genius.
- Artists need forms adequate to expression of great truths. New forms were needed allowing maximum freedom to express infinite creation.
REALISM
Realism portrays life as it is. Critic Eric Bentley defined it as candid presentation of the natural world. Unlike naturalism, realism attempts to be selective. Realism was a revolt against classicism and romanticism, forms realists saw as unnatural. Realism developed out of the development of science. Philosopher Auguste Comte classified sciences according to their relative simplicity, with sociology at the apex as the most complex and important science. He believed art must depict truthfully the real physical world; truth is attained only through direct observation; only contemporary life and manners is directly observable; observers must be as impersonal as scientists. Realist theater created a total stage picture attentive to "details" of sound, set, costume, etc, bringing everyday activity onstage. Ensemble acting was the order of the day as opposed to the old "star" system. For the dramatist, realism worked from the same scientific idea. Dramatist Eugene Scribe advocated the well-made play concept which emphasized:
- Clear exposition and preparation
- Cause-effect arrangement of incidents
- Building scenes to climax
- Use of withheld information
- Startling reversals and suspense
Ibsen modified the well-made play theory to include motivated expositions and made sure dialogue, costume, etc were selected for their ability to reveal character and move the story along. Each role is conceived as a personality whose behavior is attributable to hereditary or environmental causes. Internal psychological motivations are given even greater emphasis than external visual details.
NATURALISM
Naturalism is an extension of realism, articulated most strongly by Emile Zola in the late 1800s. Zola said drama should illustrate inevitable laws of heredity and environment or record case studies. He wanted dramatists to present truth objectively like scientists, thus observe, record, and experiment and not gloss over life. Unlike realism, naturalism made no attempt to be selective and in performance wanted to photograph life, meaning all aspects of the performance sought to capture a true picture of life. Of course this wasn't a successful movement.
EXPRESSIONISM
Expressionism emerging in Germany around 1910 sought to counter materialism and industrialism. Expressionism charged that the industrial age had turned people into machines with conditioned responses and souls shriveled by materialist values. Expressionists wanted to reshape the world to make it conform to what is best in the human spirit and thereby to achieve "regeneration of man." Most expressionist drama focuses on how the human spirit is distorted by false values. It usually shows the protagonist searching for truth, fulfillment or a means to change the world. The external world of theater production may also be distorted to reflect the mental state of the character. Walls of buildings or rooms may lean in threateningly, color may reflect emotion (protagonist's jealousy may make the sky green, not blue), movement and speech may be robotlike, or several persons or objects may be identical in appearance, shadow and angles may be emphasized. The world may be a nightmarish version of human experience or the production may focus on the inner person, reflecting his mental state in order to touch audience emotions. Expressionism is often associated with pessimism and disillusionment since it reached its heights in Germany immediately after World War I.
POSTMODERNISM
Postmodernism reflects contemporary art as artists ignored or violated rules and regulations of disciplines. As the 1960s revolutionized culture, artists created new forms and styles often integrating art disciplines and various materials. Artists rebelling against absolutism expressed individuality, often shocking and inspiring audiences.
May 26, 1913 Actors' Equity Association organized.