Machu Picchu, Inca Empire, built mid 1400s on a high plain between peaks of 2 mountains in the Andes, had agriculture and complex stone buildings. It covered 5 sq mi of terraces around a central plaza linked by beautiful, dramatic stairs. Hierarchy of nobles, governors, officials headed by the Sapa Inca. Central administration controlled building new towns and monitored use of natural resources. Incas did not invent the wheel. Kings controlled vast domains with a 19,000 mile road network over inaccessible terrain. Government relay couriers kept in close touch with local and provincial officials, covering 150 mi a day. Small offices of runners waited along routes. Peruvian soldiers carry their boots in their ponchos. Peruvian pilgrims worship smiling god in Chavin de Huantar temple. Paracas culture Nazca in Peru were great potters and weavers. Gourds, still used, date from 2500 BC, before ceramics. Designs vary from single animal designs to elaborate telling of important village events. Ear of corn from Peru antique shop turned out to be a ceramic child's rattle.
Born in Argentina in 1778, General Jose de San Martin trained in Spain for the military. Hearing of the fight for independence San Martin returned home, devising a plan to liberate Peru, the corner of Spanish authority in South America. San Martin built up a Chilean battle fleet and in 1830 organized a combined sea-land invasion. Marching on Lima, San Martin gained popular support and negotiated with the Spanish viceroy to surrender without further fighting. The viceroy surrendered. When San Martin's troops entered Lima in 1831 San Martin became Protector of Peru and declared the colony independent, retiring in 1832.
LAKE TITICACA
Lake Titicaca, high in the Andes' Altiplano region bordering Peru and Bolivia, is the world's highest lake on which ships can sail. Long before Europeans arrived people traveled Lake Titicaca in reed boats called balsas. Near its southern end is the ruins of the ancient city Tiahuanaco, 600 BC - 900 AD, extending its culture to Ecuador, Chile, Argentina and Yungas, destroyed in a cataclysm. Shortly after the end of Tianhuanaco's influence and governing power a man and a woman, Children of the Sun and Mama Ocolo, moved to Peru from one of Lake Titicaca's islands and organized native llama herders into the Inca Empire.
Peru complex may be oldest city
About the time pyramids were built in Egypt, a civilization in Peru built the Americas' first urban center, a complex of stone pyramids, plazas and intricate irrigation canals. 125 miles north of Lima, may be the birthplace of civilization in the Americas. Caral, aged-dated to as early as 2,627 BC, covered 160 acres on the floor of Peru's Supe Valley, a civilization of farmers, craftsmen and fishermen, with a central government or organization strong enough to induce hundreds of workers to labor long to build a sprawling complex of 6 pyramids, apartment-like buildings, open stone-cobbled plazas and irrigation canals tapping a nearby river.
BOLIVIA
Liberator Simon Bolivar 1783 - 1830 born in Caracas, Venezuela, dreamed of uniting all Spain's colonies in a political federation. Touring Europe as French Revolution results spread, Bolivar became inspired to fight for South America's independence. In 1824 Bolivar became leader of Venezuela's republicans. He led them in a revolt to establish Venezuela's independence in 1816 although not recognized by Spain. Carrying the struggle to Columbia in 1819 Bolivar defeated Spain and became Columbia's first President. Bolivar and his army returned to Venezuela, defeated Spain and won a great victory capturing Caracas for Venezuela on the plains of Carabobo in 1821, confirming Venezuela's independence. Bolivar, still visualizing a united Spanish America, in 1822 secured independence for Quito (now Ecuador) later a part of Columbia. In 1824 Bolivar led Peruvian revolutionaries in their fight for independence. Victorious, he was elected President of Peru in February 1825. In May Bolivar organized in southern Peru a new republic, Bolivia, the first South American State to raise the flag of independence but last to gain freedom. Independence was proclaimed in 1809. Wars securing it were won in 1825. The llama for centuries has been Bolivia's most valued animal. Llama habitats largely determined Inca Empire boundaries. Bolivia, high in the mountains, has always had transportation difficulties. Bolivians were among the first Americans to organize air transport in 1925. Bolivian women wear tall hats and colorful shawls carrying almost anything from corn to babies.
POTOSI, Bolivia - Spanish Colonization
Diego Centano founded Potosi in 1545 after discovering rich silver mines. Until the 1700s it was the New World's largest city. Spaniards arrived in America with definite ideas of gaining wealth, particularly attracted by precious metals. Offered an estate by Cuba's governor, Hernan Cortes retorted "I came to get gold, not till the soil like a peasant." In civilization's early stages gold was washed from Caribbean island rivers. On the mainland silver was the precious metal found in greatest abundance. 1545 brought spectacular silver strikes to Potosi, making silver mining an important factor in consolidating Spanish-American settlement patterns. Potosi, in the southern part of the Altiplano, was known worldwide as was Cerro Rico (Rich Hill) with its abundant silver. Inca kings were interested in mining, though not as avidly or greedily as the Conquerors. Before the Conquest 12th Inca Huyana Capac visited the neighborhood. Hearing of the region's minerals he ordered workers to exploit them. Work barely began when the mountain roared, shouting "Pachacamac Janac Pachapac guaccaichan" - "The Lord guards the treasures for one who comes later." Incans abandoning their work named the place Potosi - "noise." Spaniards fulfilling the prophecy soon established Potosi as one of the world's most affluent, illustrious mining cities.
PARAGUAY
Paraguay's basic characteristics were cast during the first decades of European rule, enforced under the Republic of Paraguay after independence in 1811. Paraguay's egalitarian social structure and relatively homogeneous population of mestizos follow Spanish culture and religion but speak the Indian language
Guarani at home. Paraguay, one of South America's first countries to achieve independence, never had a large European population due to its remoteness. Many Spaniards took Indian wives. In the mid-1500s Paraguay was South America's second most important Spanish dominion (Peru was first) Their preeminence as a colony was short-lived because it produced no gold or silver. Over time Paraguay's lack of precious gems proved a blessing - Paraguay escaped the horrors of slavery prevailing in Peruvian or Mexican mines. Spanish conquest and settlement was more humane in Paraguay than anywhere else.
ECUADOR
High in the Andes' Cordillera Real, Ecuador is one of South America's smallest countries, less than 1/2 as big as France. Ecuador's physical extremes include immense forests, towering mountains, farms, ice, water, fire. The Avenue of the Volcanos' peaks feed torrents transforming the Maranon River into the Amazon. Ecuador is named for containing the Equator's highest point. In Ecuador Pizarro killed Atahualpa and the Inca empire. Almost 1/2 Ecuador's population is Indian and speaks Quechua, scratching a harsh mountain existence, their lives ruled by sun, moon, markets and fiestas. Spanish priests converted the Northern Sierra's biggest festival, a pagan summer solstice feast, renaming it St John's Day and celebrating Mass.
VENEZUELA
Columbus discovered Venezuela during his 3rd voyage, August 1, 1498. Reaching Trinidad he sailed west along the coast and saw new land he mistook for another island. He named it Holy Land or Land of Grace. Thus at Macuro (now Cristobal Colon) Venezuela Columbus first set foot on continental America. The name Venezuela first appeared in the early 1500s during Alonso de Ojeda's "minor voyages" along the north coast as far as Lake Maracaibo. Ojeda saw Indians living in groups of houses built on stilts over the water, reminding him of Venice. Amerigo Vespucci, traveling with Ojeda, suggested Venezuela, "little Venice." Vespucci, traveling over lands Columbus discovered, was first, on returning to Europe, to write about them.