The World History Rewritten

History of China

Speaking about the history of China (and then about history of India) I will try to show you that it is not so different form European history, and historical processes and laws are basically the same.

You should also remember that China has extremely large share of the World population. For the whole history (except XVIIIth and XIXth centuries) 1/4 of the World population lived in China. The same is true for India.

Cosmetic corrections: september 2006

• First stage is the ancient China (2nd millennium BC - 770 BC) when the state that appeared in Shaanxi, Henan and Shanxi provinces (blue border) conquered the valley of River Huang He (Yellow River). Blue arrows shows this expansion.
• Second stage is the feudal fragmentation of “Springs and Autumns” and “Warring Kingdoms” periods (770-221 BC).
• Third stage starts from emperor Shi Hunagdi (founder of Quin dynasty), who conquered all kingdoms, built the Great Wall (navy blue zigzag) and was the real creator of China Empire. This was the age (221 BC - IXth century AD) of relative economic prosperity because of the expansion to the South China (green arrow) and profitable export thorough the Silk Road (red line).
• Fourth stage (Xth - XVIth century) is the age of stable and relatively isolated feudal state, periodically invaded by barbarians (black arrows) or quaked with peasants revolts (yellow border shows the core of China lands).
• Fifth stage begins in XVIIth century when China started to isolate form the European penetration. This stage was ended in XIXth century with Opium Wars.

Before 770 BC. Historians have very limited knowledge about the first China’s dynasties (Xia, Shang and Zhou). Those dynasties are mentioned in China tradition, but most of the early literature and historical writings were destroyed according to orders of emperor Shi Hunagdi, when he fought with political opposition to unite China. Chronologies before the year 841 BC are constructed based only on archeological discoveries and have the fault that historians could mistake cultures (people who use the same pottery, weapons, etc.) with dynasties (families of rulers). But we can safely assume that before the year of 770 BC there was three cycles of rise-and-fall of early feudal China states (called Xia, Shang and Zhou). We also know that Zhou dynasty was real and started form barbarian invasion. 

Of course it is hard to say, was it more a military or peaceful economic expansion. In my opinion, because of geography of Huang He river basin, the expansion of Ancient China probably resembled the expansion of early medieval Russia from river Dniepr basin to river Volga basin: peaceful colonization of higher-technology nation was (when necessary) supported with military force by rulers.

770-221 BC. Feudal fragmentation (divided into two periods: “Springs and Autumns” and “Warring Kingdoms”) started from barbarian invasion, but rulers of China were loosing their power gradually for some time before. For five centuries China was divided into many kingdoms fighting with each other. It was the period of wars and chaos, but also the acme of culture and philosophy.

• Confucius doctrine. Simplifying terribly Confucius (Kong Fu Zi) doctrine concentrates on life according to virtues, respect to moral authorities, respect for elders and ancestors. Finally Confucius doctrine (Confucianism) became an official doctrine of China Empire, because it promoted ideas that naturally supported the authorities of Empire.
  
• Taoism (or Daoism) was a mystic doctrine which promotes self-development and some magic practices. Taoism finally became a philosophy of poor ones and common people, and was sometimes ignored, some times haunted by authorities.

Continuous wars (the same as renaissance wars in Italy inspired Machiavelli) inspired Sun Tze (or Sun Tzu) to write a tractate about the art of waging war.

Finally China was reunited by kingdom of Quin (see map). Probably the reason for Quin strength and conquests was the income from the export by the Silk Road (a trade route from China to Middle East, Europe and India) plus maybe better iron weapons and other war technologies imported from West.

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Third stage: Export by the Silk Road

221 BC - IXth century AD. Emperor Shi Huangdi (name means “The First Emperor”) - famous for his funeral terracotta army and from movie “Hero” - from Quin, who united China was the real creator of China Empire. He introduced many reforms: unified law, administration, currency, systems of measures and built roads. His methods were brute (like methods of Peter the Great or Ivan The Terrible in Russia) - many opponents were killed, many nobles were deported, many books were burnt. And he also built the Great Wall joining together many smaller walls protecting China from barbarians.

After Shi Huangdi death, a great rebellion destroyed the Quin dynasty, but thanks to his reforms the Empire survived the civil war, and next dynasty - Han - ruled China for four centuries.. Anotherr reason for this political stability was the economic prosperity because of colonization of low-populated South China and export by the Silk Road. China (peripheral state) had lower income than Middle East and Europe (core states), so could easy export goods that China manufacturers had a technological monopoly: first silk, then china (delicate pottery), tea, etc.

China is one of the best examples of feudal state with a strong role of government and administration. The feudal hierarchy was the hierarchy of offices (like ex. in XIXth century Russia). Moreover China officials (like in the Inca Empire) were usually highly educated. We can say that in Europe generally dominated a “free-market-oriented” feudal system while in China a “state-oriented” feudal system.

Free market is generally more effective, but government regulated marked also have some advantages, which are generally the same as a monopoly or great corporation with big market share has:

• Big firm or country have advantages of scale (or economies of scale) in some economic activities (for example a big country usually wins wars with smaller countries).
• When a country is important exporter of some goods or resources (silk or china for China), could dictate the prices and thus maximize income from export.
• Monopoly could protect important technologies longer than many independent producers (China was able to protect technology of silk and china for few centuries).
• And finally, transaction costs for some economic activities are sometimes lower when there is a kind of central management (government administration, corporate managers).

It is useful to note here that China had a very limited deposits of precious metals, except copper (comparing with the demand for money created by the China’s economy). So when Chinese a several centuries later discovered paper money, they really discovered the hyperinflation, which, as you recall, is a side-effect of stagflation crisis in a government-regulated economy.

Han dynasty (the same as Tang dynasty a few centuries later) - as every feudal government supported by GPI, I call the planters-faction (i.e. group of political interests that represents feudals and merchants interested in export) - was open for new ideas. China even sent expedition of explores to the West.

Centuries from IIIrd to VIth were another period of feudal fragmentation in China. One of the reasons for this decline was the economic and political crisis in the Roman Empire, which reduced the demand for Chinesee export and thus weakened China’s government which had monopolistic control over the export. With the economic recovery of populistic Byzantine Empire, China recovered also. Of course there is some latency in economic cycles in both regions.

In the times of another great dynasty, Tang (VIIth-IXth century AD), the process of colonization of South China ended, and populations of both regions equalized. The trade between Southern and Northern China became more important than the trade with the West. In result the capital of China was moved from the Shaanxi province (Xi’an) closer to the Grand Canal. (It is not unusual for the capital of the state to be moved, when trade routes shifts or government changes the economic policy. Great examples are removals Roman Empire capital from Rome to Constantinople or the Russia capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg and back).

• When a feudal country prospers because of profitable export, there are no serious social conflicts (see frame below), and thus elites are tolerant and open for new ideas (including other religions) - thiis is the case of early China (Han dynasty).
  
• China conquered many lands with local beliefs and local religions, so the ideology that united the Empire had to be irreligious and tolerant for local traditions.
• And there was little or no economic need for ideology like religion.

With the shrinking demand for Chinese export in the Middle East and with the less profitable trade exchange between South and North China when economic levels of both regions equalized, the power of central government declined, and Tang dynasty failed (at the beginning of Xth century). And another period of feudal fragmentation started.

Xth-XVIth century. Since Xth century China was a relatively isolated feudal state that had its own cycles of rise an fall (more or less as the Ancient Egypt). Economic policy of the Emperor’s court changed many times and because of many reasons. Originally I have planed to use China as an example to show the reasons for transitions of government policy in a feudal state (to explain when different feudal factions take over the leadership). But then I realized that the whole lecture is too long for this short introduction to the Mechanics of History. I present short explanation in the frame below. 

The Empire of Song dynasty - which united China again (and ruled the Empire till the Mongol invasion 960-1225 and till 1279 in South China) - was rather peaceful comparing with Han and Tang dynasties. This time the Empire was smaller and strong half-barbarian kingdoms controlled the Great Wall, northern mountain passes and the Silk Road. Simply speaking, China was a quite rich country these times and has no profitable lands to conquer in close vicinity, so the pacifism was the most reasonable economic policy.

Also there was no reason to control trade route to the West because the economic gap between China and the West (i.e. Europe and Middle East) almost disappeared and therefore export to the West was not so profitable as before. China Empire was one of the richest countries these times. Also the technological gap between China and the West was smaller. Chinese made many important discoveries like: gunpowder, print, compass, paper.

But we have to remember that China was still less technologically developed than the West. These discoveries were spectacular, but there were only a few of them while Europeans and Arabians had known many technologies which Chinese did not know (in metallurgy, warfare, constructing, engineering, math, writing, mining, ships building). Here are only a few examples:

• Chinese discovered printing but did not know the alphabet, so the technology of printing was not very profitable.
• Chinese discovered gunpowder, but were behind in metallurgy, so did not invented canons.
• Chinese had no technology of stove, so could not colonize Siberia forests (and even Manchuria) north of them.

It is the irony of history that the country ruled by civil service of very educated officials - because education was the main criteria to become a state official and then to go up in administration hierarchy (as you recall feudal class in China was the class of state officials) - had slower technological growth than countries of the West, often ruled by uneducated rulers. The main reason is, the scientific development is chaotic of nature and its rate slows down when the government controls and regulates the country’s economy.

Before the XIXth century one of the basic economic evidences, which country was richer is the direction of coins (money) flows. We just need to see which country was an exporter of goods (China), and which one had to export money (Middle East, Europe). Country that had to export money, usually is richer - demand for the goods imported from abroad is so high that the country have not enough exportable goods to balance the import and thus have a permanent negative trade balance (warning: it is true only when economies of most countries are government-regulated). As I said before: rich country have a comparative advantage at money.

An effect of economic stagnation in China was the neighbouring barbarian tribes grew in strength. Song dynasty lost the north of China for the half-barbaric rulers in 1126 - Ruzhens (or Jurchens), founders of Jin dynasty. And finally China experienced the Mongol invasion. Mongols leaded by great chieftain Gengis Khan conquered Northern China at the beginning of XIIIth century. (Song dynasty survived in Southern China till 1279 AD, when the grandson of Gengis Khan, Kublai Khan conquered the rest of the China.) The Mongol Empire of Ghengis Khan and his descendants (called Yuan dynasty) was probably one of the greatest empires in the history. (See map) As I said before, one-fourth of human population lived in China, so Mongol barbarian conquests launched by the fall of China have to be extraordinary. Especially because steppes and grasslands of Eurasia (from Hungary to Manchuria) are a very easy travel route for nomad tribes.

Armies of Mongols conquered and subordinated China, Siberia, Central Asia, the great part of Middle East and Russia. (Of course most of the feudal countries conquered by Mongols were more or less decomposed.) They even plundered Poland and Hungary in Central Europe. But aside from the destruction and fire that Mongol conquests brought to many cities and states, had also some positive effect: uniting the Asia opened again the trade route from Europe to China. Before Mongols the Silk Road was controlled by several countries and the costs of trade exchange were very high, because of many taxes merchants had to pay - now it was much easier to travel and trade.

Opening of new trade routes brought extra profits to Italian populistic merchant republics of Genoa and Venice. With the travels of Venetian merchant Marco Polo. Europeans gained knowledge about China and the Court of Kublai Khan. But for China export to the West was these times not such profitable as before. The main source of government income for Mongol Emperor - who resided in Bejing - was the salt monopoly.

Under the rule of Kublai Khan the empire of Yuan dynasty reached the peak of its power. Mongols as every barbarian tribe which conquered China were absorbed by the higher civilization of conquered country. Emperor even tried to conquer Japan, but the strong resistance of Japanese and the fortunate storm called Kamikaze (divine wind), which destroyed the invasion fleet, saved Japan from Chinese conquest. It is useful to mention that even the invasion was successful, the large population of Japan (plus the logistic problems) would made the long occupation of Japan isles impossible.

The rule of Yuan dynasty was ended with national rebellion against Mongol Emperors and that was the start of Ming (1368-1644) dynasty famous in Europe from precious china. In the times of Ming dynasty European sailors (Portuguese) arrived in China, and since then trade exchange with Europe was not longer conducted by the Silk road but by the sea.

It is also worth to mention here that in times of Ming dynasty - and a few decades before the Great Europpean discoveries - between the years of 1405-1433 Chinese admiral Zheng He (Muslim eunuch) made a number successful expeditions to India Ocean (here is a map). His fleet reached even the eastern coast of Africa, but then his journeys were prohibited by the Emperor. Zheng He expeditions reached only the well lands known for a few centuries to the Arabian sailors, which had for some time trade outpost in South China (and also Chinese merchant sailors according to Arabic chronicles). But the strange decision of China Emperor is a good example that in feudal countries with government-regulated economy there is very little economic pressure to explore of new lands and made geographic discoveries, because political interests of merchant class are poorly represented.

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Fifth Stage: Protectionism and isolation

1. To pay with precious metals (coins) - again: rich country has comparative advantage at money.
2. To monopolize the sea trade in the region, and get extra income as trade middlemen, which will help to pay for Chinese goods.
3. To rob traders of other nations, getting Chinese goods for free.

However sea export to Europe was extremely profitable for local Chinese officials (often corrupted by European merchants), so for some time China government did not react. But in XVIIth century China Emperors started to take some protectionist measures - more or less the same time as shoguns of Japan did. To be honest, the reason for this change in policy was rather to protect the Emperor income from taxes and monopolies than to protect Chinese traders.

The last dynasty of the Emperial China was the Quing dynasty (1644-1912). Emperors of Quing dynasty came from Manchuria (region north of Bejing and Korea east from Mongolia), which conquered the China when Ming dynasty was ended with civil unrest. After the years of unrest rule of external invaders were reasonable option for Chinese elites. Manchuria (Manchu state) was a half-nomadic tribe, but Manchu were not really barbarians, because there was many Chinese cities in Manchuria these times. As I said before, when a feudal state falls, it is usually invaded by barbarians, but invaders could also come from a neighbouring middle-income country.

• China Empire is the center of the World, and have the oldest tradition. Other nations (especially Europeans) are barbarians.
• Other nations did not developed anything important - our culture, goods and technology are the best.
• There is nothing interest in ideas imported from other nations, they (their ideas) could bring only corruption to our traditions (which are no doubt the best).

Isolationism made China terribly technologically underdeveloped, so British Fleet had no problem to defeat China ships and army in two Opium Wars. These wars ended the China’s isolation and opened the Empire for European trade and investments.

As you can see, the country with the highest political system (third in my classification) also could wage “dirty” and morally doubtful war if such war is profitable. And reasons behind the promotion of free trade are not always honest.