INSIGHT/8
EDITED BY HVF WINSTONE
June 2004
Contents
Middle East background and a guide to events
IN THIS ISSUE:
1 A Chronological history of Iraq from c3,500BC to the present day
2 Letter to editors on a world-wide archaeological concern in Iraq
HISTORY
Previous issues
Insight1: Background to Palestine/Israel, Iraq, Syria; Freedom of Information in Britain; the Grandma Spy; notes fom the official archives
Insight2: Dr V G Bull and the Iraqi gun, with acknowledgements to VOMIT (Victims of Masonic Ill Treatment)
Insight3: The Road to Kabul: Summary of India Office document on the background to the first Afghan War
Insight4: The politics of Osman bin Laden
Insight5: Mary Robinson's plea for human rights
Insight6: The Palestinian Vision of Peace
Insight7: Israel's delusion of grandeur
1
Appendix 1 from the Barzan edition of Gertrude Bell
A Chronological history of Iraq
The Ancient World
c.4000 - 3500BC: Late Neolithic/Hassuna/Halaf periods, identified by distinctive pottery. Pre-dynastic royal graves of Ur.
c.3500BC:Calcholithic Age. Uruk (Iraq), biblical Erech, seat of man-god hero Gilgamesh king of Nippur and (by tradition) 5th king of Uruk. First surviving written texts. With rival city-states – chiefly Lagash, Umma, Ur, Eridu, Nippur, Kish – formed land of Sumer, an agricultural society, with ancient Egypt the first known centre of civilisation. Original inhabitants of unknown origin, probably Caucasian. Mesannepadda, contemporary of Gilgamesh, king of Kish, founder of 1st Dynasty of Ur.
c.3000BC: Lagash persuades rival states of Sumer to unite briefly to extend into Elam (Persia).
c.2500BC: Early Bronze Age. Lugalzaggisi of Uruk and Umma becomes overlord of region.
c.2500BC: Akkadians, a Semitic people, settle to the north of Sumer and conquer entire region. Empire of Akkad stretches from Gulf to Mediterranean.
c.2300BC: Sargon the Great. Third Dynasty of Ur.
After long flux of Sumer/Akkad rule, Semitic speaking peoples of north dominate and Sumer disappears from history.
c.2000BC: Babylon. Hammurabi the law maker.
c. 2000 - 1500BC: Ebb and flow of Assyrians, Hittites and Kassites in region.
c.1500 - 1000BC. Babylon subdued. Assyrians, Mitanni and Elamites dominant.
883 - 626BC. Assyrian Empire, embraces Armenia (Urartu), Babylon, Syria, Egypt, Persia
612BC. Sack of Nineveh. Neo-Babylonia.
604 - 562BC. Nebuchadnezzar. Israel taken into captivity.
539BC. Babylon captured by Persians. Achaemenid Empire.
334 - 327BC. Alexander the Great. Persian rule at end. Region between the two great rivers, Tigris and Euphrates, becomes known by Greek name MESOPOTAMIA.
332BC. Seleucid rule.
c230BC. Parthian Empire, based on Persian soil. Iraq a border province in wars with Romans.
54BC. Battle of Carrhae, Parthians defeat Romans. Peace during next century and beyond from Augustus to Trajan .
113 - 117AD. Trajan conquers most of ancient Iraq (approx. Basra to Samarra), but successor Hadrian relinquished area. 'Too costly to defend'.
224AD. Parthian domination ends.
224AD. Sassanian rule. Constant conflict with Rome. Roman army forced behind Euphrates line. Then peace for more than 100 years.
448AD Kobad I, later Khusrau (Chosroe), invigorates Sassanid Empire.
622AD Heraclitus's Byzantine army conquers much of Armenia and Iraq.
Medieval Iraq
632AD. Death of the Prophet Muhammad.
634AD Arab conquest begins
637AD. Battle of Qadisiya, fall of Persian capital at Ctesiphon. End of Sassanid power in Iraq.
Caliphates
641AD. Mosul taken. Moslem rule in Iraq based at Kufa and Basra
656AD. Murder of Khalifa Othman. Civil war between successor Ali, husband of Prophet's daughter Fatima, and Mu'awiya, kinsman of Othman.
659AD. Arbitrators depose both Ali and Mu'awiya.
661AD. Murder of Khalifa Ali at Kufa. Caliphate inherited by Mu'awiya and moves to Damascus. Umayyad Dynasty inaugurated under Omar I. Iraq becomes centre of the Party of 'Ali, asserting Shi'a doctrine, the right of Ali's descendants to the Caliphate.
680AD. Ali's son Husain falls at Karbala in fight with Umayyad force.
Under Umayyad rule, Arab warrior aristocracy imposes poll tax on non-Moslem inhabitants, begins to convert vast subject population to Islam. Converts, Mawali, demand participation in affairs and rewards of empire.
Shi'a version of faith imports many features of older Judean, Christian and Zoroastrian religions.
685 - 687AD. Kufa rebellion by Muhammad al-Hanafiya, son of Ali by secondary wife.
717 - 720AD. Umayyad Caliph Omar II introduces financial reforms. Designed to stem unrest among Mawali non-Arab Moslems.
716AD.Shi'a extremist movement under Muhammad ibn Ali ibn al-Abbas, descendant of Prophet's uncle, develops a effective religious propaganda machine, based at Khorrasan in NE Persia.
743AD. Persian agent of Hashimiya sent to Khorassan and raises standard of revolt agains Umayyad.
750AD. Umayyad rule comes to end.
Abbasid Dynasty
Abbasid rule established at Baghdad, Iraq becomes dominant Arab province..
789 - 809AD. Under Harun ar-Rashid Abbasid dynasty reaches highest point. On his death battle between Persia and Iraq for leadersip of dynasty intensifies. Local dynasties proliferate, Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids, etc. Shi'a led rebellions.
871AD. Basra sacked in revolt of negro slaves.
833 - 847AD. Army commanders, most Turkish Mamluks, become dominant. Iraq falls under dominance of Shi'ite mountain people from Caspian region led by Buwaihid family, subduing most of Western Persia.
945AD. Baghdad falls to Buwaihids.
Seljuk Turks
1055AD. Seljuq Turks from Steppes beyond Oxus overrun Persia and occupy Baghdad. Seljuks, as Sunni Moslems, largely welcomed by orthodox community.
1118 - 94AD. Nine Seljuq sultans rule Iraq. Atabegs, supreme rulers, established. Some declared independent principalities, including the Zangid at Mosul who took lead in arousing Islam against Crusaders in Syria.
1194AD. Tughril, last Seljuq Sultan, killed in battle with Turk ruler of Khiva, Takhash.
1172 - 1200. Takhash tries to establish authority in Iraq, as does successor Ala ad-Din Muhammad.
Moghuls
1220AD. Jenghiz Khan overruns Transoxiana and threatens Persia.
1258AD. Hulagu Khan, grandson of Jenghiz, captures Baghdad. Abbasid Caliphate ends.
1336AD. Moghul Khan Abu Sa'id dies and Moghul rule ends.
Mixed Dynasties
1340AD. New dynasty, Jala'irid.
1401AD. Timur (Tamurlane) sacks Baghdad.
1444AD. Turcoman dynasty (Kara Koyanulu/Black Sheep) defeat Jala'irid Ahmad, last ruler of Jala'irid dynasty.
1444 - 67AD. Iraq part of vast Turcoman state under, first, Jihan Shah; second, Uzun Hasan (Ak Koyunlu/White Sheep)
Safavids
c1499 - 1508AD. Safavid Ismail dynasty gains ascendancy over Turcoman tribes, assume throne of Persia.
1514AD. Ottoman Selim I at war with Shah Ismail. Protracted conflict between Ottomans and Safavids lasts until 1639
Ottoman Turks
1534 AD. Sultan Suleiman occupies Baghdad.
1623AD. Shah Abbas seizes Baghdad from Ottomans
1638AD. Ottoman force retakes Baghdad. Arab chieftains maintain independent areas in South.
1704AD. Hassan Pasha appointed governor of Baghdad. Iraq becomes Pashalik. Rule kept within family of of Hassan, then Mamluk governors.
1723AD. Death of Hassan. Succeeded by son Ahmad
1733AD. Nadir Shah invades. Siege of Baghdad, but Ahmad remains in control of Baghdad and Basra viayets
1743AD. Persian invaders lay siege to Mosul
1746AD Ahmad Pasha arranges peace terms with Persians
1747AD. Ahmad dies. Further Mamluk rule over Ottoman vilayets
1750AD. Suleyman Agha, Mamluk, made Wali (governor) of Bagdhad and Basra provinces
1764AD. Umra Agha succeeds
1775AD. Death of Umra. Persias re-occupy Basra
1780AD. Suleyman the Great made Wali of Baghdad and Basra. Trouble from Kurdish chiefs in the north and Muntifiq confederation of tribes in south
1790AD. Wahhabi raiders from Nejd
Period of Western influence
1800. British Resident at Basra
1801. Wahhabis sack Karbala
1802. Death of Suleyman. British Consulate established Baghdad
1803/4. Wahhabi raids on Najaf and Basra
1817. Daud, last Mamluk ruler, takes control. Sultans of Constantinople introduce reforms; end of Mamluk rulers in empire.
1831. Ali Ridha Pasha sent to disarm Mamluks. Regiments exterminated by arms and by the plague. Direct Ottoman rule re-established. Attempts to bring Kurdish area under control.
1869. Midhat Pasha, governor of Baghdad. Far reaching reforms to infrastructure. Newspapers, poor houses, hospitals, schools set up.
1872. Midhat recalled and murdered. But reforms continue, especially postal services and railways.
1876. Gladstone makes famous 'bag and baggage' attack on Turkish rule.
1898. Kaiser Wilhelm visits Palestine and Syria; lays wreath at tomb of Saladin. Drang nach Osten begins.
1902. March 2, Britain's Foreign Secretary Lord Lansdowne issues Memo on policy regarding Baghdad railway, principality of Kuwait, the Porte and foreign powers immediately interested. Decribes Shaikh Mubarak of Kuwait as 'an untrustworthy savage'.
1903. Lord Lansdowne, makes statement in House of Lords: 'We should regard the establishment of a naval base or fortified post in the Persian Gulf by any other power as a grave menace to British interests, and we would certainly resist it with all the power at our disposal'.
1905. Committee of Imperial Defence announces change in structure of Military Intelligence services. From division of responsibilities into sections 1 to 4, the geographical description Middle East coined, covering area from Mediterranean to India under aegis of MO(I)2. Previously signified only Persia and Gulf territories.
1908. Committee of Union and Progress, Young Turks, rebel against Sultan Abdal Hamid. But power not absolute for another six years.
1910. Work on restoration of Hindiya Barrage on Euphrates.
1914. Turkish empire joins Germany in Great War. British force occupies Shatt-al-Arab.
1915. British advance from Basra to Baghdad halted at Ctesiphon. Retreat to Kut al Amara. Gertrude Bell sent from Cairo to act as head of Iraq branch of Arab Bureau.
1916. April, besieged British force at Kut, under General Townshend, capitulates o Ottoman army.
1917. New British oiffensive from Basra. Baghdad captured in March. America enters war on Allied side and sends troops to Mesopotamia.
1918. Kirkuk taken but Turkey sues for peace before Allies can claim Mosul.
British Mandate
1920. British administration under CinC, General Haldane, and Civil Commissioner, Sir Arnold Wilson. April, Britain receives mandate for Iraq from San Remo. Arab Council of State formed, advised by British officials.
Kingdom of Iraq
1921. Sir Percy Cox, wartime Chief Political Officer in Iraq, called from Tehran to become High Commissioner for Iraq. Conference at Cairo called by Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill to consider promises made to Arabs during war and formulate policy, after which Abdullah, second son of Sharif of Mecca, Husain bin Ali, invited to occupy throne of the new Iraq. He sought throne of Syria under the French mandate, however, and Faisal the Sharif's third son was invited in his stead. His accession ceremony as King Faisal I took place at Baghdad on 23 August, 1921.
1922. May, Electoral Law paves way for constituent assembly. Treaty of Muhammerah. Conference of Ujair under Cox, defines Arab states' boundaries. Neutral zone between Iraq and Kuwait.
1924. March, first meeting of Assembly. Anglo-Iraq treaty approved. Organic Law makes Iraq a sovereign state.
1925. League of Nations, pressed by Britain, declares Vilayet of Mosul should be incorporated into Kingdom of Iraq. Opposed by Turks. Oil Cocession granted to Turkish Petroleum Company (late Iraq PC)
1926. July, treaty between Britain, Iraq and Turkey permits incorporation of Mosul district. Iraqi Parliament meets in regular session. Death of Gertrude Bell in Baghdad.
1927. Oil found at Kirkuk by Turkish Petrolem Company.
1930. New 25 year treaty with Britain.
1932. Iraq joins League of Nations. Mandate officially terminated.Oil Concession granted to Mosul Oil Co.
1933. Death of King Faisal I, succeeded by son Ghazi.. Massacre of Assyrians by Iraq army.
1934. Pipelines built from Kirkuk to Tripoli and Haifa.
1935. Tribal insurrection crushed by army.
1936. Military coup led by General Bakr Sidiqi.
1937. Bakr Sidqi assassinated.Sa'dabat treaty signed between Iraq, Turkey, Persia and Afghanistan. Gives control of Shatt-al-Arab to Iraq.
1939. War. Iraq severs ties with Germany. King Ghazi killed in motoring accident, succeeded by son, Faisal II, though Abdalillah, uncle, effective ruler.
1941. Military coup d'etat under Rashid Ali al-Gaylani, sympathetic to Germany. May, British invasion and occupation of Basra and Baghdad.
1943. Iraq declares war on Axis powers.
1945. Iraq signs UN Charter.
1948. Portsmouth agreement replaces 1930 Anglo-Iraq treaty. Britain relinquishes air bases at Habbaniya and Shuayba. Arab hostility to British policy towards Palestine causes Iraq to repudiate Portsmouth agreement.
Arab-Israeli war begins on 15 May (ends with truce on 18 July)..
1949. Iraq and other Arab forces withdraw from Palestine. Oil pipeline Syrian Tripoli.
1951-2. Large-scale immigration of Jews from Iraq to Palestine.
1952. Riots in Baghdad. Martial law imposed in November. Oil pipeline to Baniyas, Syria. New agreement with oil companies gives Iraq 50% of profits before deduction of foreign taxes.
1953. Martial law lifted in October after 12 months.
1955. Baghdad Pact. Iraq and Turkey agree on mutual co-operation; with adherence of Pakistan and Iran, to counter Communist penetration. First article recognises 'special relationship' between Britain and Iraq. USA expresses wish to enter into close military, economic and technical liaison with signatories.
.1956. Suez adventure. Hostilities between Israel and Egypt, 29 Oct. British and French join conflict 31 Oct. Riots throughout Middle East. Iraq breaks off diplomatic relations with Britain and France. Martial law imposed 31 October. November, IPC pumping station in Syria attacked. Dec, Iraq withdraws troops from Jordan.
1957. US under Eisenhower pledges $12m. to Moslem nations attached to Baghdad Pact.
1958. United Arab Republic of Egypt and Syria. Monarchies of Faisal II and Husain of Jordan proclaim federation of the two kingdoms. Coup in Iraq led by Brigadier Kassim and Col. Aref, murder of Faisal II, Crown Prince and prime minister Nuri as-Said. Iraq becomes a republic. Aref, Baath Party supporter, dismissed and charged with plotting against state. Abd al Karim Kassim PM.
Republic of Iraq
1959. Violence between Arab army units at Mosul and Communist peace campaigners. July, fighting between Kurds (with Communist support) and Turcomans. Iraq claims Iranian waterways in Shatt-al-Arab. Kassim announces withdrawal from Baghdad Pact. Special agreement with Britain terminated. Measures to limit rights and powers of Communists. 7 October, attempt on life of Kassim.
1961.March, Kurdish rebellion led by Mustapha Barzani's Democratic Party of Kurdistan. Proclaims independence. June, Kassim makes claim to Kuwait as former part of Basra vilayet. Kuwait appeals to Security Council.
1963. February, military coup in Baghdad. Kassim shot. Abd al Salam Aref president. New government under Ahmad Bakr. Baath Party ascendant in Syria and Iraq. November, Aref announces Iraq Arab Socialist Union; all political parties encompassed by Union.
1964. Continuing warfare between Kurds and government troops. January, cease fire negotiations. National claims of Kurds recognised. Amnesty granted by government. But Kurds refuse to give up armed struggle. New Iraq Constitution proposed recognising national claims of Kurds.
1965. Pro Egyptian Baathist ministers resign. New Iraq administration under Aref Abdal Razzaq. Tries to seize dictatorial powers but attempted coup fails; seeks refuge in Cairo. September, new PM, Dr Abdurrahman al-Bazzaz.
1966. April, President Abd al Salam Aref killed in air crash. Succeeded by brother Abdal Rahman Aref. June, Brigadier Aref Abdal Razzaq returns from Cairo and attempts a second coup d'etat, but foiled by Presidential action. Dispute between Syria and Iraq Petroleum Company. Damascus demands large retrospective payments. December, Syria impounds IPC properties within that country.
1967.Arab - Israeli war. New agreement between IPC and Syrian government. Iraq severs diplomatic relations with USA and Britain for aiding Isrel in abortive conflict.
1968. France agrees to supply Mirage jets to Iraq. Diplomatic relations with UK resumed. July, bloodless coup led by former PM General Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr becomes President. New cabinet with Kurdish representation dismissed after a few days. Al-Bakr appoints self PM and CinC. November, prominent Westerners expelled, ex-foreign minister, Nasser al Hani murdered, al Bazzaz and other former ministers arrested. More conflict with Kurds.
1969. January, death sentences passed on 14 men accused of spying for Israel, nine of them Jews. Corpses put on display in Baghdad and Basra. Census of Iraqi Kurds proposed.
1970. Army and police officers threaten to overthrow government but plot discovered. Twenty or more 'conspirators' executed. Iran and USA said to be implicated. Council for the Command of the Revolution postpones proposed census. March, peace plan with Kurds announced.
1971. Iraq forces withdraw from Jordan and Syria. Attempted coup by army and air force officers thwarted.
1972. More clashes between army and Kurdish rebels. June, Iraq nationalizes IPC. Iraq signs 15-year treaty of friendship with USSR.
1973. October, Arab - Israeli 'Six Day' war. Iraq boycotts Arab summit in November. Relations with Iran deteriorate again. Another coup attempted, led by secret service chief Nazim Kazzar.
1974. Kurdish war intensifies. Border fighting with Iran. UN mediator intervenes.
1975-7. 'Brotherly' agreement between Iraq and Iran signed by Shah of Iran and Vice-President Saddam Husain Takriti at Algiers OPEC meeting (March 1975) resolves dispute over Shatt-al-Arab, gives immunity to Kurdish refugees seeking sanctuary in Iran. New effort by central government to assist economic development of Kurd region and legitimise Kurdish language. Increased rivalry between Syrian and Iraq wings of Baath Party.
1978. Camp David agreement on Palestine/Israel, between Egypt and Israel. Opposed by Iraq. Shah of Iran exiled. Ayatollah Khomeini de facto ruler of Iran.
1979. 16 July, Saddam Husain replaces al Bakr as President.
1980. Saddam breaks with USSR after disenfranchising Communists at home.March, president announces National Assembly and Legislative Council for Autonomous Kurdistan. Free elections by secret ballot in Iraq in June, Kurdistan in September. 22 September, Iraq forces invade Iran.
1980. President Carter, State of Union Address, echoes Lansdowne's threat of 1903: 'An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interest of the United States. It will be repelled by the use of any means necessary., including military force'.
1982 - 87. After long stalemate in Iraq-Iran war, Iran launches counter attack. War intensifies. Iraq receives massive financial and arms support from USA, Egypt, China, Soviet Union, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
1987. Sadam Husain offers Iran a ceasefire. May, USA takes Kuwait tankers under protection of Stars and Stripes. July, UN Resolution 598 calls for suspension of hostilities between Iran and Iraq.
1988. War continues. Iraq regains much of territory lost to Iran in past year. Iraq admits use of chemical weapons. Iraq forces again cross border with Iran. 20 August, armistice in Iraq-Iran war, monitored by UN military observer group UNIIMOG. Opeace talks based on Resolution 598.
1989. Suppression of Kurds continues.
1990. September 10, resumption of diplomatic relations between Iraq and Iran. Iraq renews claims against Kuwait. July, negotiations in Saudi Arabia to resolve territorial, oil and financial questions. 2 August, Iraq invades Kuwait, establishes Provincial Government. 6 August UN imposes economic sanctions. 9 August US troops deploy in Saudi Arabia. UN declares annexation void. 12 August President Saddam links possible talks on Kuwait with Israeli occupation of West Bank and Gaza.
1991. January, operation 'Desert Storm' begins. February, Soviet peace plan rejected. Security Council resolution 660 demands unconditional withdrawal. 23 February multinational force launches offensive to liberate Kuwait. 3 April, Security Council res. 687 lays down terms of ceasefire. Resolution 689 specifies demilitarised zone between the two countries; monitored by permanent members of Security Council. Rebellion by Shi'a and Kurdish populations. Economic sanctions imposed.
1992. Iraq rejects UN terms for resumption of oil exports. October, Security Council adopts new resolution (778) allowing it to confiscate $500m worth of oil-related assets.
1993. UN weapons inspectors arrive in Iraq. Flight exclusion zone in souithern Iraq proclaimed by USA, UK, France and Russia. Iraq forced to withdraw anti-aircraft facilities.
1994. Weapons inspectors ready to begin monitoring regime. Iraq responds by sending force to Kuwait border. US sends reinforcements to Kuwait. November, Iraq Assembly votes to recognise redrawn Kuwait boundary defined by UN in 1992/3. Security Council reimposes sanctions, despite apparent Iraqi compliance. Iraq's deputy PM visits Moscow. Russia calls for more flexible UN attitude. UN Special Commissioner confident Iraq no longer possesses weapons of mass destruction.
1995. UN Secretary-General offers to resume dialogue on lifting sanctions, but Security Council renews sanctions for further 60 days. France breaks from pro-American stance of Council and establishes diplomatic representation within Rumanian embassy.
2
Letter to the Editor
[Copy of a letter sent to editors of national newspapers in late 2002.]
I wonder if I might draw attention to a secondary danger that threatens both European and American citizens who could become the involuntary victims of any military operation in Iraq?
There is a real prospect of a massive man-made flood covering a part of the country that contains sites of great archaeological importance. It imperils much that has been achieved by western exploration and scholarship over the past 150 years. Urgent action is called for and archaeologists from several countries, including Britain and the USA, are hoping to mount rescue operations. At the onset of the Gulf War some of us warned of the danger posed by military operations in places such as Babylon, biblical Ur and Erech (Uruk of the present day) and other sites of world renown in the south of the country. As biographer of Leonard Woolley who unveiled Ur and Gertrude Bell who was the founder of the Baghdad Museum and first director of the country's antiquities service, I had a special interest. Now much more familiar treasures are at risk between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. And if the military threat is still in the balance, the flood hazard is actual and urgent in the region that provided almost all the great museums of the West with the massively eloquent wall friezes of mighty Assyria.
A continual reduction in the flow of the Tigris and the consequent dam project which the Iraqis are completing at Makhul, some 120 miles south of Mosul, threatens to submerge Assur the old capital of the Assyrian empire and an international rescue operation is being planned by archaeologists. It may take five years for the natural reservoir that contains a substantial part of Assur to fill to capacity. In terms of scientifically conducted archaeology, that time limit is desperately short and expert teams are needed on site now. Sanctions , together with the ever-present danger of military intervention, have brought foreign excavations to a virtual close in a region that also contains the biblical cities of Nimrud and Nineveh. The British School of Archaeology in Iraq (the Gertrude Bell memorial foundation) has announced that it proposes to return to the Assur region as soon as it can to begin the task of rescuing as many as possible of the artefacts that remain in situ. In all probability they will be joined by Continental and American teams, as well as those still at work from the host country, determined to ensure that the achievements of their predecessors over the past century and a half are not abandoned. The possibility of war makes such expeditions hazardous in the extreme. They look to politicians to take account of their efforts and their vulnerability.
HVF Winstone
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