Put it on autopilot and we
will all just float there
allpictures
by sean except for radiohead bear and aeon flux
IINTRODUCTION Environment, all of the external factors affecting an organism.
These factors may be other living organisms (biotic factors) or nonliving
variables (abiotic factors), such as water, soil, climate, light, and oxygen.
All interacting biotic and abiotic factors together make up an ecosystem.
Organisms and their environment constantly interact, and both are changed by
this interaction.
struggling to lessen the impact of
human activity on the natural world.
the starfish were preying heavily on one of the mussel
species and keeping its numbers down. With the starfish removed, the population
of this mussel increased, and the mussel was able to outcompete many other
species of invertebrates. Thus, the loss of one species, the starfish,
indirectly led to the loss of an additional six species and a transformation of
the community. and Recovery Act (RCRA) was adopted in 1976 with the twin goals of protecting
human health and the environment and conserving valuable natural resources.
Through this act, the federal government took a more active role in controlling
solid and hazardous waste, as well as in promoting recycling. Despite the good
intentions of RCRA, numerous hazardous waste sites were created throughout the
country. To combat the dangers posed by these sites, Congress passed the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
of 1980. Known as Superfund, the act created a $15 billion fund of public
money, to be increased by taxes on polluting industries. As huge as this fund
is, it is inadequate to deal with the thousands of hazardous sites in need of
cleanup. The vast majority of these sites occur on federal military
reservations. Of the 35,000 sites screened since the passage of CERCLA in 1980,
the EPA has chosen or is considering 1295 sites for its National Priorities
List and estimates that 3000 sites eventually could be given this status. The
body of federal environmental legislation has been under increasing attack
since the election of Ronald Reagan as president in 1980. Conservatives have
argued that too much public money is being spent on the environment and that
the federal government should play a much-reduced role in environmental
regulation. In addition, some people believe that most restrictions on the use
of private property are forbidden by the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of
the United States, which prohibits the taking of property "without just
compensation." When environmental laws limit use, the argument goes, property
values decline and the government has "taken" or reduced the worth of
private holdings. The U.S. Supreme Court has agreed with this reasoning and
ruled that some environmental protection laws have placed unfair burdens on
property owners. As each piece of environmental legislation is modified or
comes before Congress for reauthorization, battles are fought between those who
believe industry and development are being unnecessarily stifled and those who
contend that the environment is being irreparably damaged. Environmental
advocacy groups have regularly taken to the courts in defense of the
environment. Suits have been filed against the federal government in the hope
of compelling its various agencies to enforce congressionally mandated acts.
Additionally, advocacy groups have sued corporations directly for failing to
follow various environmental laws. VA GLOBAL APPROACH The environmental
concerns growing in the United States during the late 1960s and early 1970s
increased internationally as well. Perhaps the biggest impetus for developing a
worldwide effort to monitor and restrict global pollution is the fact that most
forms of pollution do not respect national boundaries. The first major
international conference on environmental issues was held in Stockholm, Sweden,
in 1972 and was sponsored by the United Nations (UN). This meeting, at which
the United States took a leading role, was controversial because many
developing countries were fearful that a focus on environmental protection was
a means for the developed world to keep the undeveloped world in an
economically subservient position. The most important outcome of the conference
was the creation of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). UNEP was
designed to be "the environmental conscience of the United Nations,"
and, in an attempt to allay fears of the developing world, it became the first
UN agency to be headquartered in a developing country, with offices in Nairobi,
Kenya. In addition to attempting to achieve scientific consensus about major
environmental issues, a major focus for UNEP has been the study of ways to
encourage sustainable development-increasing standards of living without
destroying the environment. At the time of UNEP's creation in 1972, only 11
countries had environmental agencies. Ten years later that number had grown to
106, of which 70 were in developing countries. A growing number of
international agreements have been reached in an effort to improve the world's
environmental status. In 1975 the Convention of International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES) went into effect with the goal of reducing commerce
in animals and plants on the edge of extinction. In 1982 the International
Whaling Commission agreed to a moratorium on all commercial whaling. Perhaps
the most important international agreement was the 1987 Montréal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. For the first time, an international
pact was signed that set specific targets for reducing emissions of chemicals
responsible for the destruction of the earth's ozone layer. The international
community again came together in 1989 to limit the movement of hazardous wastes
among countries. Twenty years after the Stockholm Conference, the UN Conference
on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992.
Popularly known as the Earth Summit, this meeting was the largest gathering of
world leaders in history. The conference produced two major treaties. The first
was an agreement to reduce emission of gases leading to global warming, and the
second was a pact on biodiversity requiring countries to develop plans to
protect endangered species and habitats. At the insistence of the United
States, however, the final version of the global warming treaty was
dramatically scaled back. The United States was also one of the very few
countries that refused to sign the biodiversity treaty. United States
representatives objected to a part of the treaty that specified that money to
come from the use of natural resources from protected ecosystems, such as rain
forests, should be shared equally between the source country and the
corporation or institution removing the materials. The 1992 agreement on global
warming limits each industrialized nation to emissions in the year 2000 that
are equal to or below 1990 emissions. However, these limits are voluntary and
no enforcement provisions were included in the agreement. By 1997 the fact that
the goals would not be met was clear. At a follow-up conference in Kyôto,
Japan, representatives from 160 countries signed a new agreement, known as the
Kyôto Protocol. This agreement calls for the industrialized nations to reduce
emissions to an average of about 5 percent below 1990 emission levels and to
reach this goal between the years 2008 and 2012. A desire for environmental
change led to the creation of various political parties around the world whose
emphasis was largely on environmental protection. The first of these
organizations, collectively known as green parties, was the Values Party in New
Zealand, created in 1972. By far the most successful has been the green party
of West Germany, Die Grunen, which in 1983 won nearly 6 percent of the seats in
the West German Parliament. Green parties have developed in almost all
countries that have open elections, but they have had the largest impact in
those nations where proportional representation within a parliamentary system
occurs. Thus, the green parties have not played a significant role in American
politics. In 1993, 23 green parties from eastern and western Europe came
together to form the European Federation of Green Parties, with the hope that
together they would have the leverage necessary to demand that environmental
issues such as pollution control, population growth, and sustainable
development be more fully addressed by various national governments and
international bodies. VICURRENT ISSUES In November 1992 a document entitled
Warning to Humanity was released. This alarm was signed by 1500 scientists from
around the world, including 99 Nobel laureates, a dozen national academies of
science, the Pontifical Academy of Science, and the director general of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The
document was bold and clear, stating that "human beings and the natural
world are on a collision course," which "may so alter the living
world that it will be unable to sustain life in the manner that we know."
The problems facing the environment are vast and diverse. Destruction of the
world's rain forests, global warming, and the depletion of the ozone layer are
just some of the problems that will reach critical proportions in the coming
decades. Their rates will be directly affected by the size of the human
population. APopulation Growth Human population growth may be seen to be at the
root of virtually all of the world's environmental problems. Increasingly large
numbers of people are being added to the world every year. As the number of
people increases, more pollution is generated, more habitats are destroyed, and
more natural resources are used up. Even if new technological advances were
able to cut in half the environmental impact that each person had, as soon as
the world's population size doubled, the earth would be no better off than
before. The Population Division of the United Nations predicts that the 5.63
billion humans alive in 1994 will increase to 6.23 billion in the year 2000,
8.47 billion in 2025, and 10.02 billion in 2050. The UN's estimate assumes that
population will peak and stabilize at 11.6 billion in 2200. Others predict that
numbers will continue to rise into the foreseeable future, to as many as 19
billion people in 2200. Although it is true that rates of population increase
are now much slower in the developed world than in the developing world, it
would be a mistake to assume that the population growth problem is primarily a
problem of developing countries. In fact, because larger amounts of resources
per person are used in the developed nations, each citizen from the developed
world has a much greater environmental impact than does a citizen from a
developing country. Conservation strategies that would not alter lifestyles but
would greatly lessen environmental impact are essential in the developed world.
Evidence now exists suggesting that the most important factors necessary to
lower population growth rates in the developing world are democracy and social
justice. Studies show that population growth rates have fallen in areas where
several social conditions have been met. In these areas, literacy rates have
increased, and women are given economic status equal to that of men and thus
are able to hold jobs and own property; also, birth control information is more
widely available, and women are free to make their own reproductive decisions.
BGlobal Warming Like the glass panes in a greenhouse, certain gases in the
earth's atmosphere permit the sun's radiation to heat the earth but retard the
escape into space of the infrared energy radiated back out by the earth. This
process is referred to as the greenhouse effect. These gases, primarily carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapor, insulate the earth's surface,
helping to maintain warm temperatures. Without these gases, the earth would be
a frozen planet with an average temperature of about -18° C (about 0° F)
instead of a comfortable 15° C (59° F). If the concentration of these gases
were higher, more heat would be trapped within the atmosphere, and worldwide
temperatures would rise. Within the last century, the amount of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere has increased dramatically, largely because of the practice
of burning fossil fuels-coal and petroleum and its derivatives. Global
temperature has also increased 1° C (about 1.8° F) within the past century.
Atmospheric scientists have now concluded that at least half of that increase
can be attributed to human activity, and they have predicted that unless
dramatic action is taken, temperature will continue to rise by between 1° and
3.5° C (between 1.8° and 6.3° F) over the next century. Although this may not
seem like a great difference, global temperature was only 2.2° C (4° F) cooler
during the last ice age than it is presently. The consequences of such a modest
increase in temperature may well be devastating. Sea levels will rise,
completely inundating a number of low-lying island nations and flooding many
coastal cities such as New York and Miami. Many plant and animal species will
probably be driven into extinction, agricultural regions will be disrupted, and
the frequency of severe hurricanes and droughts is likely to increase.
CDepletion of the Ozone Layer The ozone layer, a thin band in the stratosphere
(a layer in the upper atmosphere), serves to shield the earth from the sun's
harmful ultraviolet rays. In the 1970s, scientists discovered that the layer
was being attacked by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals used in
refrigeration, air-conditioning systems, cleaning solvents, and aerosol sprays.
CFCs release chlorine into the atmosphere; chlorine, in turn, breaks ozone down
into its constituent parts of oxygen. Because chlorine is not affected by its
interaction with ozone, each chlorine molecule has the ability to destroy a
large amount of ozone for an extended period of time. The consequences of the
depletion of the ozone layer are dramatic. Increased ultraviolet radiation will
lead to a growing number of skin cancers and cataracts and also reduce the
ability of people's immune systems to respond to infection. Additionally, the
growth rates of the world's oceanic plankton, the base of most marine food
chains, will be negatively affected, perhaps leading to increased atmospheric
carbon dioxide and thus to global warming. Even if the manufacture of CFCs was
immediately banned, the chlorine already released into the atmosphere would
continue to destroy the ozone layer for many decades. Additionally, the latest
studies suggest that global warming may increase the amount of ozone destroyed.
Predicting the rate of ozone depletion is difficult. Optimists claim that if
international agreements for the phasing out of ozone-depleting chemicals
agreed to in Montréal in 1987 are followed, ozone loss will peak in the year
2000. With many of the world's fastest growing countries in the process of
industrializing and modernizing, there is reason to believe that destruction
will continue to increase well beyond that year. DAir Pollution A significant
portion of industry and transportation is based on the burning of fossil fuels,
such as gasoline. As these fuels are burned, chemicals and particulate matter
are released into the atmosphere. Although a vast number of substances
contribute to air pollution, the most common contain carbon, sulfur, and
nitrogen. These chemicals interact with one another and with ultraviolet
radiation in sunlight in various dangerous ways. Smog, usually found in urban
areas with large numbers of automobiles, is formed when nitrogen oxides react
with hydrocarbons in the air to produce aldehydes and ketones. Smog can cause
serious health problems. When sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxide are transformed
into sulfuric acid and nitric acid in the atmosphere and come back to earth in
precipitation, they form acid rain. Acid rain is a serious global problem
because few species are capable of surviving in the face of such acidic
conditions. Acid rain has made nume 
rous
lakes so acidic that they no longer support fish populations. Acid rain is also
thought to be responsible for the decline of many forest ecosystems worldwide.
Germany's Black Forest has suffered dramatic losses, and recent surveys suggest
that similar declines are occurring throughout the eastern United States.
EWater Pollution Estimates suggest that nearly 1.5 billion people lack safe
drinking water and that at least 5 million deaths per year can be attributed to
waterborne diseases. Water pollution may come from point or nonpoint sources.
Point sources discharge pollutants at specific locations-from, for example,
factories, sewage treatment plants, or oil tankers. The technology exists for
point sources of pollution to be monitored and regulated, although political
factors may complicate matters. Nonpoint sources-runoff water containing
pesticides and fertilizers from acres of agricultural land, for example-are
much more difficult to control. Pollution arising from nonpoint sources
accounts for a majority of the contaminants in streams and lakes. With almost
80 percent of the planet covered by oceans, people have long acted as if those
bodies of water could serve as a limitless dumping ground for wastes. Raw
sewage, garbage, and oil spills have begun to overwhelm the diluting
capabilities of the oceans, and most coastal waters are now polluted. Beaches
around the world are closed regularly, often because of high amounts of
bacteria from sewage disposal, and marine wildlife is beginning to suffer.
FGroundwater Depletion Water that seeps through porous rocks and is stored beneath
the ground is called groundwater. Worldwide, groundwater is 40 times more
abundant than fresh water in streams and lakes, and although groundwater is a
renewable resource, reserves are replenished relatively slowly. In the United
States, approximately half the drinking water comes from groundwater.
Presently, groundwater in the United States is being withdrawn approximately
four times faster than it is being naturally replaced. The Ogallala Aquifer, a
huge underground reservoir stretching under eight states of the Great Plains,
is being drawn down at rates exceeding 100 times the replacement rate,
suggesting that agricultural practices depending on this source of water may
have to change within a generation. When groundwater is depleted in coastal regions,
oceanic salt water commonly intrudes into freshwater supplies. Saltwater
intrusion is threatening the drinking water of many areas along the Gulf and
Atlantic coasts. The EPA has estimated that, on average, 25 percent of usable
groundwater is contaminated, although in some areas as much as 75 percent is
contaminated. Contamination arises from leaking underground storage tanks,
poorly designed industrial waste ponds, and seepage from the deep-well
injection of hazardous wastes into underground geologic formations. Because
groundwater is recharged and flows so slowly, once polluted it will remain
contaminated for extended periods. GHabitat Destruction and Species Extinction
It is difficult to estimate the rate at which humans are driving species
extinct because scientists believe that only a small percentage of the earth's
species have been described. What is clear is that species are dying out at an
unprecedented rate; minimum estimates are at least 4000 species per year,
although some scientists believe the number may be as high as 50,000 per year.
The leading cause of extinction is habitat destruction, particularly of the
world's richest ecosystems-tropical rain forests and coral reefs. At the
current rate at which the world's rain forests are being cut down, they may
completely disappear by the year 2030. If growing population size puts even
more pressure on these habitats, they might well be destroyed sooner. Since
European colonization, North America has been transformed: Approximately 98
percent of tall-grass prairies, 50 percent of wetlands, and 98 percent of
old-growth forests have been destroyed. This loss is critical from several
perspectives. The economic value of species lost and of natural products and
drugs that never will be discovered or produced is incalculable. Similarly, it
is impossible to place either a moral or an aesthetic value on our growing list
of extinct species. As habitats are destroyed and species lost, the world is
increasingly losing threads from the interconnected fabric of life. HChemical
Risks Pesticide residues on crops and mercury in fish are examples of toxic
substances that may be encountered in daily life. Many industrially produced
chemicals may cause cancer, birth defects, genetic mutations, or death.
Although a growing list of chemicals has been found to pose serious health
risks to humans, the vast majority of substances have never been fully tested.
In recent studies, a wide range of chemicals has been found to mimic estrogen,
the hormone that normally controls the development of the female reproductive
system in a large number of animal species. Preliminary results indicate that
these chemicals, in trace amounts, may disrupt development and lead to a host
of serious problems in both males and females, including infertility, increased
mortality of offspring, and behavioral changes such as increased aggression.
Numerous studies have found that the amount of sperm produced by men has
decreased precipitously over the past 50 years. IEnvironmental Racism Studies
have shown that not all individuals are equally exposed to pollution. For
example, toxic waste sites are more prevalent in poorer communities, and the
single most important factor in predicting the location of hazardous-waste
sites in the United States is the ethnic composition of a neighborhood. Three
of the five largest commercial hazardous waste landfills in America are in
predominantly black or Hispanic neighborhoods, and three out of every five
black and Hispanic Americans live in the vicinity of an uncontrolled toxic
waste site. The fact that the wealth of a community is not nearly as good a
predictor of hazardous-waste locations as is the ethnic background of the
residents reinforces the conclusion that racism is involved in the selection of
sites for hazardous-waste disposal. Environmental racism takes international
forms as well. Dangerous chemicals banned in the United States often continue
to be produced and shipped to developing countries. Additionally, the developed
world has shipped large amounts of toxic waste to developing countries for
less-than-safe disposal. JEnergy Production The world cannot continue to rely
on the burning of fossil fuels for much of its industrial production and
transportation. Fossil fuels are in limited supply; in addition, when burned
they contribute to global warming, air pollution, and acid rain. Nuclear energy
as an alternative is opposed by many because of the massive devastation an
accident can cause. The accident at the Chernobyl' nuclear power plant in 1986
scattered radioactive contamination over a large part of Europe (see Chernobyl'
Accident). Approximately 135,000 people were evacuated, and human health has
been dramatically affected. The World Health Organization released a report in
late 1995 attributing the "explosive increase" in childhood thyroid
cancer in Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia directly to the accident. One reasonable
solution is to combine conservation strategies with the increased use of solar
energy. The price of solar energy relative to traditional fuels has been
dropping steadily, and if environmental concerns were factored into the cost,
solar power would already be significantly cheaper. Although it is desirable to
have a wider range of energy options, other alternative sources of power (such
as wind, geothermal, or hydroelectric) are not likely to provide large-scale
solutions in the forseeable future. KOther Issues Global environmental collapse
is not inevitable. But the developed world must work with the developing world
to ensure that new industrialized economies do not add to the world's
environmental problems. Politicians must think of sustainable development
rather than economic expansion. Conservation strategies have to become more
widely accepted, and people must learn that energy use can be dramatically
diminished without sacrificing comfort. In short, with the technology that
currently exists, the years of global environmental mistreatment can begin to
be reversed. Contributed By: Michael Zimmerman "Environment."
Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2001. © 1993-2000 Microsoft Corporation. All
rights reserved.
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