c-JAPANESE-2.htm

The purpose of this short essay is to establish as a hypothesis that IE and Japanese are both descended from a common ancestor, which, I term the Proto-Language — from the form into which it had developed by about 55-60K BPE.

This date is based on the estimates of Cavalli-Sforza for the separation of the peoples of Southeast Asia and Australia (The Great Human Diasporas, p. 123) from the "main" branch of the people speaking the Proto-Language.

During this phase of development, the Proto-Language was passing out of a class-type morphology into an ergative-type morphology (G. A. Klimov).

Japanese minimally shows the effects of the phenomenon of atonic adfixes used as "classifiers", which suggests that it is among the earliest Southeast Asian languages to separate from the main body speaking the Proto-Language — at a time when these adfixes were either not mandatory or were more loosely bound — contrasting with many other languages of East Asia, e.g. ([Sino-]Tibetan, where these adfixes have been bound to their nouns). The common Asian "classifier", an unbound adfix, used with nouns is a significant vestige of the class-type stage.

Its word order is consistently SOV — what we would expect from any language that preserves early syntax.

What is enormously exciting about Japanese is that it separated from the main branch of the Proto-Language before the stage of development (Pontic) in which the oldest semantic contrasts of CE / CA / CO were replaced by C^yV, C^(-)V, and C^wV, the superscripts indicating semi-consonantal glides or no glide.

Therefore, in open syllables ( in the absence of a following /j/ or /w/), Japanese preserves the original vowel quality of the Proto-Language intact.

In the Table of Correspondence found after the listing of lexical cognates below, the column entitled PROTO-LANGUAGE shows the earliest syllables before vocalic contrasts were replaced by a contrast of glides and no glide (during the Pontic stage).

Similar tables of equivalence can and have been constructed for the Proto-Language, IE and Afrasian, Altaic, Basque, Beng (Southern Mandé), Blackfoot (Algonquian), Dravidian (incomplete), Etruscan, Hurrian-Urartian, Japanese (present essay), Mon/Hmong, Nama, Pama-Nyungan (incomplete), (Sino-)Tibetan, Sumerian, and Uralic.



An excellent online resource for Japanese in particular and Altaic in general is at the TOWER OF BABEL, founded by Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin, and now part of the Evolution of Human Languages project at the Santa Fe Institute.

An important new resource for Nostratic studies is the website Nostratica, instituted by Kirill Babaev, the founder of the Cybalist language discussion group at Yahoo! Groups.

NOTE: Several items listed in the former version of this essay have been identified
as definite Chinese loanword, and deleted; to see them with their original numbering,
press here.

(1)TS[H]A-TS[H]A, *'ta:t(a:), stand ( MJ táts-u; 65); (IE s+t(h)a:, listed under sta:-)

(2)P[?]FO-NA-¿E, *Fo'ne ( Fo'nai), bone ( MJ hon; 61 {*po:ne}; 63); (IE *bheny-, related to Germanic *ba(i)na)

(3)TS[H]E-¿E-TS[H]E-¿E, *ti'ti ( *tye'tye *teyete'ye), breasts ( MJ *chichí, milk; 63); (IE *ti-ti, listed under tata)

(4)P[H]FO-F[H]A (blowing), *'FoFo (better: *'FoFa:; but also possible P[H]FO-P[H]FO, "always blown up" OJ * popo), cheek ( MJ ho; 63); (IE pou-, listed under 1. pu/u:-)

(5)P[?]FA-RE-?A, *'Fari ( *'Farya *'Fare[y]a OJ *pari), needle ( MJ hári; 67); (IE bhre:i-)

(6)FO-NO (curls+basket=plural) (OJ *wono -) *'F₁ono, ax ( MJ no; 87); (IE wen-; the idea is the tool that makes wood-"curls" = chips while cutting)

(7)¿E-F[H]A-P[?]FE-¿E (¿E, 'abdomen + web-like' [OJ *Fobi]), *'yau:bi ( *'ya:F₁bye *ye'F₁a:beye), belt ( MJ bi {cf. Shuri ?u'bi};87); (*awebhy-, {basis 5. aw-} for webh-; )

(8)?A-FA-T[?]SO-¿A (family-circle=property-held), *aF₂a'ja (better: *awa'ja), parent ( awa'dya *awado'ya) ( MJ oy {cf. Shuri ?u'ja}; 87); (*audh(y)- {in Welsh udd, lord}, listed incorrectly under 5. aw-; cf. Egyptian iw'w, heir) ; (but possibly OJ *oya from HHO-¿E, "procreate", seen in IE eibh-, and Egyptian hi, "husband")

(9)FA-RO, Faro, far distant (OJ *faro MJ *; *); (IE wero-s, listed under 9. wer-)

(10)¿E, *ye, stomach (OJ *yi rather than *wi MJ i; *); (IE [y]e{n}-, *in e/in-to-s, intestine, listed incorrectly under 1. en-)

(11)¿E and ¿E-FA (speaking), *ye / *yew₁, speak (i+u MJ iu, id. / yu+u MJ yu-u, id.); (IE in ya:-, speak (excitedly); and 2. yu/u:-, outcry, especially rejoicing); (the reconstruction of OJ *ip-, I believe should be corrected to *yew but possibly it stands for ¿E-HA IE ya: = OJ *ih-)

(12)¿O-FA, yu, tie (yu+-u MJ yu-u, id.; *); (IE 2. yeu/u:-); (a reconstruction of OJ *yup, I believe should be corrected to *yu but possibly *yug-, corresponding to IE yeug-)

(13)KX[H]A, OJ *ka(:), mosquito ( MJ ka(*a); 201); (IE in 3. ka/a:i-, heat (*burn, as a subjective phenomenon (KX[H]A-HA, burned); ka:u-, hit (KX[H]A-F[H]A, burning)

(14)PF[H]A-HA-¿E, ('fat-stative-like'), *Fa:'e, grow, in ( MJ ha-ru, id.); (IE in 3.sp(h)e:(i)-, prosper, spread one's self out = become fat, proceed, have success, succeed)

(15)K[H]O, OJ ko, child (MJ ko, id.; 176); (IE -ko, diminutive; in *koi-na, nest, listed incorrectly under 1. k^ei- [cf. Japanese -ke, home, family])

(16)P[H]O-NA, (OJ pana )*Fana, nose ( MJ hana, id.; 84); (IE pneu-, pant, breathe)

(17)

(18)K[H]E-F[H]A-QO-¿E, OJ *'ka:ge ('kwa:goi) shadow ( MJ káge; *);(IE *(s)keu(n)gi- in Old Icelandic skuggi, shadows, listed under 2. (s)keu-)

(19)FA-'¿E, (OJ wi-)*Fi, reed ( MJ i, id.; 201); (IE 1. wei-)

(20)SA-Q[H]A, OJ *saka(:), sloping hill ( MJ sak, id.; *); (IE *sank-, listed under sak-)

(21)SA-QA(-RO) in OJ *sagar-, hang down ( MJ sagár-u, id.; *); also sagé-ru, hang down (transitive); (IE sengw-)

(22)S[H]A-MO (stay-overall), *sa:mo, as though, if ( MJ sámo, id.; *); (IE 2.sem-)

(23)SO-¿E, *so'i, back, ridge OJ *se ( MJ se, id.; *); (in Egyptian s{i}3 [cf. Coptic soi, back)

(24)

(25)SO-¿A-P[?]O-FA (pulled-bubbles), *'shabu-, suck, chew ( *'syabou-) ( MJ shabu-ru, id.; *); (IE seib- {English sip}, listed under seip-)

(26)SE-¿E-P[?]O (emission-like-bubble), shibo-, press out, wring out, squeeze (*'syibo) ( MJ shibo-ru, id; *); (IE seib-, listed under seip-)

(27)SE-¿E-M[H]A, OJ *sima (better: *syima:), island ( MJ shimá, id.; 65; cf. shimeru, get damp/wet); (IE sei-mo-, listed under sei-)

(28)

(29)SA-F[H]O (strong-wind), OJ *suf- *su-, breathe, inhale, sip ( MJ su-u, id. *); (IE su:-, listed under 1. seu-)

(30)?A-M[H]A-¿E (top-being=superior-non-past [see (A5)]), OJ *ama-i, sweet ( MJ amai, id.; *); (IE in *a:mel-, sweet, in Albanian ambl, sweet, listed incorrectly under om-, _om-, raw, bitter); (cf. Egyptian im(3), kind, gentle, well-disposed, pleasing, be gracious, delighted, charmed)

(31)T[H]E-R[H]A-S[H]A, OJ *teras-u, shine on, shed light on ( MJ teras-u, id.; *); (IE teros-, listed under 2. ste/e:r-; note ste:ra:)

(32)TS[H]O-F[H]A (revolving), OJ *to(:), door(-post); ( MJ to, id.); (IE in ter-; cf. torii, open front gate of shrine)

(33)

(34)TS[H]O-F[H]A-KX[H]A (revolving-puncture, OJ * tuk-u, pierce ( MJ tsuk-u; id.; *); (IE s+teuk -, listed under 1. (s)teu-)

(35)?A-MA, *ama, nun, female ( MJ ama; in Amaterasu, Mother Star; *); ( IE am[m]a)

(36)

(37)

(38)

(39)SE-FA (excretions), *sew₁a, vinegar OJ su- ( MJ su, id.; *); (IE su/u:- in su:- ro-)

(40)KX[H]E-(R[H]E-)KX[H]E-R[H]E ([like a]deer-come), OJ *kake:r-u, run ( MJ kakér-u, id.; *); (IE s+kre:-, listed under 2. (s)ker-); if the root is OJ *kake(:)-, this would be PL KX[H]E-KX[H]E, IE 1. k[^]ak-, "jump, pour forth from, romp about powerfully"

(41)K[H]E-¿E-FA-RO (shadow-like-plural-very), *kyuro, black OJ *kuro ( MJ kuro, id.; 197); (IE *k[^]i-wo-ro, listed under 2. k[^]ei-); (cf. Egyptian Hw3, rot [blacken?; *ki sometimes appears in Egyptian as H; 3 = R[H]A, color])

(42)FO-RE, OJ *w₁or-, bend ( MJ ór-u, id.; 87); (IE 3. wer-)

(43)P[?]A-RE, OJ *war-, split ( MJ war-u, id.; *); (IE 7. wer-)

(44)S[H]E-¿E-NA, *sye:n-, die OJ *sin- ( MJ shin-u, id.; *); (IE *se:in-, *cease, *desist, listed under 2. se:(i)-)

(45)SA-?E-RE ('strong-eye-apply'), *sa('y)er-, know OJ sir- ( MJ shir-u, id.; *); (IE in (se:-(w-) [-FA, 'strong eyes'; [cf. Uralic Nenets sw, eye], listed under 2. sekw-; possibly); (cf. Egyptian zi3, recognize [SA-?E-RE])

(46)T[?]E-R[H]E, OJ *der(e:)-, go out, leave ( MJ dér-u, id.;*); (IE dra:-, listed under 3. (der-))

(47)HA-R[H]A-¿E (air-color-like), *ha'ra:i-, gets clear ( MJ har-ru, id.; *); (IE *ar- in ar(e)g[^]-; a/a:ier-, a/a:ien, day, morning); if the root is correctly reconstructed as OJ *par(e)-, this would correspond to PL PF[H]A/E-R[H]A ("fat/spark-color"), IE 1. sp(h)er-, "jerk, *flicker *light up

(48)?E-M[H]A-(RE) ('eye-activity-apply'), *mir-u- (re-analyzed as mi-ru), sees, looks ( MJ mi-ru, id.; *); (IE *Hme(r)- me:/ir-, listed under 5. me:-; cf. Latin mirare; cf. Egyptian (i)m3, see); but possibly OJ *mi-ru, MA-¿A ('full-eye') "see"

(49)Q[H]E-¿A-Q[H]E-¿A ('all itched, scratched'), *ke:'yake:ya-, write *kyaky- OJ kak- ( MJ kák-u [perfect kai-ta];*); (IE in kaik[^]-[ k[^]aik[^]y k[^]ai-k[^]ai], scratch, comb); {note: this suggests the Japanese were using a medium for writing before brushes}

(50)Q[H]E-¿E ('itchy, scratchy' = 'comb'), *'ke:i, hair OJ ke ( MJ ke, id.; *); (IE in kais- [Q[H]E-¿E-SO, ..pulled])

(51)KX[H]O-¿A ('cut'), *ko:'i, tree, *lumber OJ ki ( MJ k, id.;*); cf. ki-r-u, cut; (OJ *kir-; IE in kaito-)

(52)KX[H]O-¿A-RE, *ko:'ir-, cut OJ kir- ( MJ kír-u, id.; *); (IE s+ke:i- in ske/e:i-; *keir-in Greek kero: and Albanian shkjer, listed under 4. (s)ker-)

(53)HA-NA-SE, *h₁a:nas-, speak ( MJ h₍₁₎ans-u, id.; *); (IE 3. an6- + -s, in ansu-)

(54)HA-F[H]O-S[H]A ('wind-blow-state'), "h₁au:sa:-, dry, empty ( MJ h₍₁₎ós-u, id.; *); (IE (a)we:s-, "*cool", listed under 10. aw(e)-, "blow, sigh, breeze"); if the OJ is attested as *pos-, this suggests that OJ p- had become /h/, and was available for employment in roots that did not originally have labials

(55)HHE-¿E, *h₁e:'ye, fire, flame ( MJ h₍₁₎í, id.; *); (IE 4. a/a:i-); if the OJ is attested as *pi, this might be derivation from PL PF[H]E-¿E, "spark-like"

(56)HHO-¿A-RO-FA (heated-part-plural), *h₁o:'iru, daytime *hwiru OJ *firu ( MJ h₍₁₎iru, id.; *); (IE in erkw-; *ari-, listed under a/a:yer/n-); (cf. Egyptian hrw, day)

(57)HHO-¿A, *h₁o:'i, sun, day, time *hwi OJ *fi ( MJ h₍₁₎i, id.; *); (IE 4. a/a:i-)

(58)HA-¿E-R[H]A(-¿E) (air-like-color-like=clear), *'h₁ya:ra:i ( *'h₁a:yera:ye), fine, fair weather ( MJ h₍₁₎áre, id.; *); (IE a/a:yer/n-); if the OJ is correctly *par(e), see (47) above

(59)HA-F[H]A-¿E-RO (air-s-like=empty-very), *h₁a:u:i'ro-, wide, roomy *hwiro OJ *firo ( MJ h₍₁₎iró-i, id.; * [cf. h₍₁₎eyá, room; h₍₁₎e-komu, become hollow]); (IE 5. er-); if the OJ is attested as *piro, then this might relate to IE 2. (s)p(h)er-, *spread (PF[H]A-¿E-RO, "fat=wide?")

(60)

(61)NO-M[H]A (stomach-hold), OJ *nom-, drink, swallow ( MJ nóm-u, id.; *); (IE 1. nem-)

(62)NO-RE ('basket-make'='saddle?'), OJ *nor-, ride ( MJ nor-u, id.; *); (IE 2. (s)ner-)

(63)N[H]A-F[H]A (waving), *nu-, sew ( MJ nú-u, sew; (IE s+ne:u-, listed under sne:u-); if the root is attested in OJ as *nup-, this might be a variant of IE sne:u-in -p, corresponding to IE *(s)ne:up-, listed under (sne:p-), "twist into a cord" (-P[H]A adds the notion of small intransitive movements)

(64)N[H]A-F[H]A-M[H]A, *na:u:ma:, swamp, bog OJ numa ( MJ numá, id.; *); (IE leu-mo-, listed under 1. leu-; cf. also la:ma:)

(65)N[H]A-M[H]A-¿E, *na:ma:'i, wave OJ nami ( MJ namí, id.; *); (IE *lem+dh-, listed under 1. lendh-)

(66)PF[H]E-¿E-KX[H]O-¿E ('sparkling-shell'), *F₁e:i'ko:i *hye:-'koi , honorific title ( MJ *i'ko:i + -i (-¿E, -like) in ikii [metathesis], power; 20); (IE s+phe:[i]-ko, strength, listed under 3. sp(h)e:i-)

(67)?E-R[H]A (eye-rise), *era:-, great, eminent ( MJ er-i, id.; *); (IE 3. er-)

(68)P[H]A-N[H]A-RA (flatten-back), *'F[ⁿ]a:ra, plain (*Fa:'na:ra) ( MJ hára, id.; 9); (IE pla:-ro-, listed under pel6-)

(69)TS[H]A-KX[H]A-M[H]A, (stand up-stick-activity = raising), OJ *ta:ka(:)'m(a:), raise ( MJ in takamá-ru; id.; 9); (IE in s+ta:k-, listed under sta:k-)

(70)T[H]E-R[H]A, OJ *'te:r(a:)-, shine ( MJ tér-u, id.; *); (IE te:ra:, listed under 2. ste/e:r-)

(71)T[H]A-R[H]E, OJ *ta(:)'r(e:)-, drip, drop ( MJ tar-ru, id.; *); (IE 8. (s)ter-)

(72)TS[H]O-F[H]A-R[H]E, *'to:F₁a:re:-, get through ( MJ tor-u, id.; *); (IE 1.twer-); if this word is attested in OJ as *topor-, then this derivation fails

(73)T[H]O-R[H]E, OJ *'to:r(e:), take, steal ( MJ tór-u, id.; *); (IE s+ter-, listed under 3. ster-)

(74)T[H]A-RA, OJ 'ta(:)r-, become slack, loose ( MJ tar-um-u, id.; * [for -um-, see #110, 'bear, *become'); (IE 1. ter-)

(75)

(76)T[?]A (hand), *da, is (at) ( MJ da, plain present of desu, it is); (IE de-)

(77)MO-R[H]E, OJ *mor(e:)-, leak {noun} ( MJ moré, id.; *); (IE 4. mer- [*bleed]; in meregh-; in 1. merk-)

(78)T[?]A-N[H]A-QA-?A ('pull (out)-kink'='straighten'), *dna:'ga:-, long OJ naga- ( MJ nag-i, id.; *); (IE (d)longho-s, listed under 5. del-)

(79)NE-¿E-P[?]A-RO, *neibar-, to be sticky ( MJ nebar-u; *); (IE leib-ro, listed under 3. lei-)

(80)

(81)NA-¿A-T[H]A (rock-stone-loosen=chip edge), *nyata, hatchet ( *na'yata)( MJ nata, id.; *); (IE s+neit-, listed under sneit-)

(82)N[H]O-RO, *n:o'ro-, slow ( MJ nor-i, id.; *); (IE s+ler-, listed under (s)lrg-; Norwegian slora, listed under (s)leu-)

(83)MO-FA-SE-¿E ('poison-emit-like') *'mousye, worm OJ musi ( MJ mushi, id.; *); (IE mus-, listed under 2. mu/u:-; (cf. Sumerian mush, snake)

(84)HHA-F[H]A (water-s), *'aw₁a, green, blue OJ awo ( MJ o, id.; *); (IE awei-, 'watery', listed under 9. aw(e)-, 'dampen, moisten, flow'); (cf. Arabic Hawiya, to be dark green)

(85)P[H]A-?A ('flat-plant'), OJ pa- *Fa:, leaf (of plant) [probably, earlier *bark] ( MJ ha, id.; *); (IE -p in leup- [N[H]A-F[H]A, 'slipping' + P[H]A, 'flat' = 'bark' or 'leaf')

(86)N[H]A-?A ('wave-plant'='fresh'), *na:, green, leafy vegetables ( MJ ná, id.; *); (*la:, *fresh, in la:i-; N[H]A-?A-¿E)

(87)?A-R[H]A (top-rise), OJ *ar(a:), defect ( MJ ará, id.; *); (IE *ere:- in Latvian re:ta, scar, listed under 5. er-)

(88)?A-RA (forehead-high), OJ *ara-, rude {*provocative}( MJ ara-i, id.; *); (IE ere(i)-, *provoke, listed under 3. er-)

(89)FO-TS[H]O (around-revolve), OJ *woto(:), old ( MJ oto-, 'adult' in oto-k, male; oto-na, adult; 331); (IE wet-, *old, *yeared)

(90)

(91)SO-¿E-RO (skin-like-very), *'syero, white ( *so'yero) OJ siro- ( MJ shiro, id.; *); (IE possibly *sei-, *white, in *sei-mo, *very white, in Welsh hufen, cream (*soimeno), listed incorrectly (?) under sei-)

(92)HA-?A-¿E-S[H]A ('air + stative = lightness-like-condition) *ha:yesa, quickness ( MJ hyasa, id.; *); (IE *e:is-, listed under 1. eis-, move fast); if this word is attested in OJ as paya, then the correct derivation may be from PF[H]E-¿E, "spark-like", seen in IE 3. sp(h)e:(i)-, "progress"

(93)HA-?A-¿E (see #92), *ha:i, ash[es] ( MJ hai, id.; *); (IE 4. a/a:i-; in ai-dh-, *ash)

(94)PF[H]A-HA ('browsed'), OJ pa *F₁a: (*F₁ah₁), tooth ( MJ há, id.; *); (IE pa:-; *pa:pa: [cf. Latin pa:pa], listed under pap(p)a)

(95)ME-T[?]SE ('tongue-extend=sweet'), *mede-, *sweet ( MJ mede-ti, happy [TS[H]A -t = IE -ta:, continuing state + -i = IE -yo, adjectival]; (*medh-, listed under medhu-, which is ME-T[?]SE + HHA-F[H]A, 'waters')

(96)ME-NA-T[?]SE-FA-RO('tongue-thing=conversation+extend=me ntion-ing-very'), OJ *me⁽ⁿ⁾dura-si-, splendid ( MJ mezura-shi, rare; 331); (IE *mendh-ro, listed under mendh-; the idea here is "very worthy of mention")

(97)

(98)MA-QA ('full-bend'), OJ *maga-, bend ( MJ maga-ru; id.; *; also mageru, bend (transitive)); (IE meng-)

(99)MA-Q[H]A, ('full-hump'), OJ *mak-, wind, roll; ( MJ mak-u, id.; *); (IE menk-, listed under men(6)k-)

*(100)SA-Q[H]A-RO-¿E ('strong-hump-very=high-like'), OJ *'sakari-, height ( sakari, id.; *); (IE *sank-ro+i, listed under sak-; the ancient idea of "holy" was that an object was raised to a height that would prevent accidental contact; this would be equivalent to "dedication"); the same SA-Q[H]A is present in *saka-, heat ( MJ saka-ri [-RE-¿A]; *); (IE senk-; the idea is that an item to be heated is suspended over the fire; and SA-Q[H]A-¿A, sake, wine ['heated'])

(101)S[H]E-¿A-Q[H]A-S[H]A ("gone away-high=sink-state"), *"syansa:, sink ( * "sya:ⁿksa:)( MJ shiz-umu, id.; *327 for -ns z); (IE *sei(n)k- in Old Indian siñcáti, listed under seikw-)

(102)FA-?A-Q[H]A ("bent into a hump=cripple"), *wa:ka:-, *weak ( MJ waká-i, young; *); (IE wa:k-, listed under w6k-; *wonko-, listed under wek-)

(103)¿A-FA-RO ("much-fragile=tender-very"), *yaw₁ara-, soft(en) ( MJ yaw₁ara-geru, soften; 75); (IE *yewe-ro-, listed under yeu-, *tender, young)

(104)M[H]A-T[?]A-HA ("palm+hand-move [laterally]=give"), *"ma:d-h₁a:-, meet ( MJ mát-u máts-u, wait; 332); (IE *ma:dH- [cf. Armenian matim), listed under mo:d-; cf. do:- (*deH-), give); (cf. Egyptian (r)di, give)

(105)P[H]A-¿E-T[H]O ("over-tribe member"), *Fa"ito:, (gentle-)man ( MJ hito, man; *); (IE pi-, listed under epi-); (cf. Egyptian p(')(i)t, gentry; the ' is a determinative for indicating an internal -i- representing ?A in P[H]A-?A-T[?]O, "flat-lump=contain[er], which is IE 1. pe/e:d-; probably *pyet- [cf. Avestan paiti], listed under poti-s)

(106)HA-P[H]A-¿E ("flea-like"), *h₁Fa"ye, fly ( MJ hae, id.; *); (IE pe:(i)-; -pi in apis, bee [HHA-?A, "sweet"]; notice also pe:i-to-, swarm of bees, in Latvian spiêts, listed incorrectly under 3. sp(h)e:(i)-); (cf. also Egyptian pii, flea)

(107)T[?]SE-?A-"¿E-T[?]SE-?A-"¿E ("extend-state=fragrance-like=smelly, sour"), *dye-dye( MJ jijii, old man, grandfather (derogatory); *); (IE *dhe:i- (cf. Greek theía, aunt), listed under 1. dhe:-; for "sour", cf. dhedhn-, (sour) milk), listed under dhe:(i)-)

(108)T[?]SO-¿A-M[H]A, ("held-activity"), *dyama:, restriction ( MJ jama, obstruction; *); (IE dhe:m- in Old Indian dhá:man, statute, law, listed under 2. dhe:-)

(109)T[?]SA-?E-¿E-RO ("long-eye-like-very=stare"), *da:"yero "dyero, stare ( MJ jiro, in jíro jiro míru, stare at; *); (IE *dhe:i-ro- [cf. Old Indian dhí:ra, seeing], listed under dhey6-)

(110)?E-FA-M[H]A ("socket-navel=womb-activity"); *e"w₁am-, bear (a child) ( MJ um-u, id.; *; also as a formative meaning 'become'); (IE *ewem- in Germanic wambo:, womb [+ P[?]FO, place]; in Latin venter, stomach [from *ewem-dri], listed incorrectly under udero-; in *auma:-, *womb, in *auma: [German Oma]), grandmother, listed under awo-s, maternal grandfather, a masculinization of *awa-, *womb); ( cf. AA *?awama in ?umatun, mother)

(112)MO-R[H]A ("be high by addition"), *mora:-, receive, ( MJ mora-u, id.; *); (IE me:-ro-s, listed under 4. me:-)

(113)K[H]E-?A-¿E ("other-state-like"), *"ka:ye-, change, alter ( ke"aye) ( MJ kae-r-u, id. ; *); (IE k[^]o-, that (other); k[^]ereyo-, make (alter in a new shape), in 2. k[^]er-); (cf. also Egyptian k3.w, others, foreigners [Budge]; k3.t, work, construction)

(114)¿A-KX[H]E-¿E ("much-run-like"), *i"ki-, *go (*quickly) ( *yake:"i) ( MJ *iki in ikinari, suddenly; *); (IE *yeky-, listed under ye:-)

(115)?A-FA-¿E-KX[H]A-¿A ("sticks-like=frame+stuck"), *aw₁i"kya, house ( MJ uchi, id.; *); (IE *Hweiky-, listed under weik[^]-; cf. also ?A-FA-¿E-T[H]O-¿E (Hweiti- wi:-ti, listed under 1. wei-; to which, cf. Egyptian iwy.t, house)

(116)KX[H]A-RA ("point-high=upside down=empty"), *kara, out of (cf. kará, being empty [+-?A, stative] ( MJ kara, id.; *); (IE 2. (s)ker-, *empty out; cf. Egyptian H3, outside (emptiness), go ashore)

(117)?A-R[H]O-F[H]A-¿O ("top-rising-cause"), *"arwa:(i)-, wash ( *"aro:wa:i-) ( MJ ara-u, id.; 18 [*araFi]); (IE *Hloweyo-, listed under lou-)

(118)K[H]A-P[H]A ("desire-pick up=grab covetously"), *"ka(w), buy ( MJ ka-u, id.; 18 [*kaFi]); (IE kap-)

(119)TS[H]O-F[H]A-R[H]E, ("revolving-come '), *"to:F₁a:re:, go around ( MJ tóor-u, id.; *); (IE 1. twer-)

(120)N[H]A-KX[H]A-¿E ("vibrate-hum-like=sing [bird: warble]"), *naki-, sing ( MJ naki-ru, id.; 326); (IE le:keyo-, listed under 1. le:k-)

(121)TS[H]O-F[H]A-KX[H]A-¿O, ("revolving-puncture-cause"), *"twa:"kyo, penetrate ( *to:F₁a:ka:"yo) ( MJ tsukií-ru, id.; *); (IE (s)*teukeyo-, listed under 1. (s)teu-)

(122)P[H]O-F[H]A-KX[H]E-¿O ("swellings-fast-cause"), *"F^hwa:kyo, blow ( *Fo:F₁a:ke:"yo ( MJ fuk-ú, id.; *); (IE *p(h)ukeyo-, listed under 1. pu/u:-)

(123)?O-MO ("strong-push"), "omo-, heavy ( omo-i, id. *); (IE om6-, *be heavy)

(124)SO-FA-M[H]A-¿E, ("pulling-activity-like"), *souma:"i, ink ( MJ sumí, id.; *); (IE *seu-mo(i)-, listed under 1. seu-)

(125)T[H]A-KX[H]A-?A-¿E ("damp-point-plant=reed-like=bamboo"), *ta"ka:y, bamboo ( MJ take; *); (IE *tak(h)H-, *cane, listed under tek[^]þ-; note tek[^]þ-ta:, bowl, a natural product for such, and the frequent take (bamboo) dishes of Old Japan)

(126)Q[H]A-¿E ("humped-like"), *ka:"i, shellfish ( MJ kái; 27); (IE *a(n)ki-, *hard, stone, listed incorrectly under 2. ak[^]- (for *a(n)k[^]-), pointed, which is Q[H]E; cf. 3. kar- [Q[H]A-RA{back}="hump-back=hard"])

(127)T[H]O-F[H]A-Q[H]A ("compacting-hump"), *twa:ka:, mound ( *to"F₁a:ka:) ( MJ tsuka; 27); (IE twenk-, mound, listed under te:u- but properly should be under stew6-; the idea is the stones stopping the earth from washing away)

(128)T[H]E-F[H]A-¿E-Q[H]E-¿O, ("shining-like-wriggle-cause"), *twa:ik"yo, moon ( *te:F₁a:i"kyo) ( MJ tsukí, moon; (IE in Germanic *tweink(h)[^]eyo-, a derivative of 2. twei-)

(129)?O-¿E-T[H]O-¿E-KX[H]O, ("sound-like-tribe member-like-shell"), *oitye"ko:, female shaman ( MJ ichiko, id.; *); (IE 5. ai-, say (prophet); (ai-ti, fate, from ai-to, *speaker), listed incorrectly under 3. ai-, give); KX[H]O, shell, seems to be a designation for social position; -komay also derive from Q[H]O, *garland? [cf. Latin coro:na, garland]

(130)KX[H]O-F[H]A-SE-M[H]O-¿E ("cutting-separate=carve(d)-human-like=image"), *"ka:mi, god ( *"ka:mmi *"kwa:smye *ko:"wa:se-mo:"ye) ( MJ kámi, god (really "idol"); (*IE kwes-, listed incorrectly under k[^]es-; cf. also Greek ksóanon, divine image [kseu-]); (cf. Egyptian x(wz)m, sacred image); [cf. Arabic Ausi:m, Letopolis])

(131)T[H]SA-P[?]FE-¿E ("lengthened-digit-like"), *ta:"bei, eat ( MJ tabé-ru, id.; *); (IE *tabh-, *extend fingers, in English "stab")

(132)T[?]SE-FA-P[?]FE-¿E ("digit-like"), *dwabe"i, finger, toe ( MJ yubí, id.; *); (IE dheubhy- in Greek túphoi, listed under dheubh-)

(133)?A-F[H]O-S[H]A ("family=good-spider-place=East"), *"assa, morning ( *"au:sa:) ( MJ ása, id.; *); (IE awes-; cf. Egyptian (I)wz(i)r, Osiris, "morning-maker")

(134)?A-FA-R[H]E ("forehead-circle-come=turn"), "*arre:, be at, find ( *"aure: ( MJ ár-u, id.; *); (IE *Hwere:-, listed under 4. wer-; cf. also 8. aw-, to perceive sensibly: ?A-FA, "facing")

(135)FA-SE ("round-excrete"), *"F₁ase, sweat ( MJ áse; *); (IE 3. wes-)

(136)M[H]A-Q[H]O-F[H]A ("hand-crushing") *"ma:kwa:-, scatter ( MJ maku-ru; id.; 38 [in makie, inlaid lacquer, the basal idea of "pressing (into)" is better preserved]); (IE menku-, listed under men(6)k-; the idea is to convert to powder by crushing so it can be strewn; 2. ma:k-)

(137)?A-FA-SO-¿O ("plants-pull-cause"), *"aw₁asoi-, put together, unite ( MJ awasé-ru, id.; 38); (IE *Hwesy-, listed under 7. wes-)

(138)?E-¿E, ("socket-like=line"), *ei, picture (line[s]) ( MJ é, id.; *); (IE in e:l-, line)

(139)MO-NO ("flesh-basket"), *"mono, crest ( MJ món, id.; *); (IE mono-; 1. men-)

(140)MO-NO ("overall-plural"), *mo"no, thing ( MJ monó, id.; *); (IE *men-, something, in Greek monos)

(141)M[H]O-NO ("human-plural"), *"mo:no, person(s), somebody ( MJ mono, id.; *); (IE manu-s; cf. Egyptian mn, so-and-so, someone)

(142)P[H]A-N[H]A-F[H]A-RO, ("flat-start=filling-very"), *F^hu:r-, fall, come down as rain (*Fⁿa:"u-ro *Fa:na:"wa:ro) ( MJ fúr-u, id.; 303); (IE pleu-; 1. pel-)

(143)?A-¿E-R[H]O ("forehead-like-rise=blush"), *yiro: (better: *airo:), color, complexion, face ( MJ iró, id.; *); (IE 1. el-, reddish, golden-yellow; cf. Egyptian irw, shape, form, nature)

(144)¿A-NA-RO-¿E ("rock-one-very-like"), *yaⁿ"sye, stone, rock ( *yan"dzye *yan"dzoye *yan"(d)roye) ( MJ íshi, id.; *); (IE indro-, listed incorrectly under oid-; should be connected with Old Indian ádri-, stone, listed under ond- {for *yan-(d)ri-})

(145)NA-(¿E-)P[?]O-¿A ("absent-swollen=budded=very young"), *"niwe, new ( *na"iwai)( MJ nii- [niwa is from NA-¿E-P[?]O {*nio *niwo); 74); (IE neuyo-s, listed under newo-s; cf. Egyptian nfr, beautiful NA-P?O-RO {+very})

(146)?A-R[H]A ("family=good-color=pink {coppery}"), *ara, new, *early ( MJ ara-; *); (IE *a:ri- in Greek ê:ri, in the morning, listed under a/a:ier, day, morning)

(147)NE-¿E-K[?]XO-RO ("sticky-throat=phlegm=dirty+very"), *neye"goro, dirty, beclouded, befouled ( MJ nigór-u, id.; 75); (IE sleig-, listed under 3. lei-)

(148)Q[H]A-Q[H]A ("all humped"), *-a(k?)ka, dirt (*-ka:ka:) ( MJ -aka, id.; 75); (IE kakka)

(149)N[H]E-¿E-T[?]SE-¿A ("slid-extended"), *"ne:idya, twist, screw ( MJ neji-ru, id.; 75); (IE s+leidh-, listed under 3.lei-)

(150)F[H]A-T[?]O-FA ("circle-lumps") *udu (better *F₁udw₁a), whirlpool ( MJ uzu, id.; 75); (IE *wedu- {cf. Phrygian bedu}, listed under 9. aw(e)-)

(151)NE-¿E-P[?]A ("mucus-like=sticky-piece"), *"neiba-, be sticky, adhesive ( MJ neba-ru, id.; 75;) (IE *(s)leib(h?)-, listed under 3. lei-, *sticky)

(152)?A-Q[H]E-RA ("top-point-high"), *aker-, open ( MJ aker-u, id.; 75); (IE ak[^]ri-, high)

(153)K[H]A-?A-RO ("desired-very"), -"ka:ro, family ( MJ -kara, id.; 77) ; (IE ka:ro-, listed under ka:-; k[^]er-, *progeny, listed incorrectly under 2. k[^]er-)

(154)M[H]O-RA-¿O ("horse-back-cause"), *mo:"ri- ( *mo:ra"i-) , ride ( MJ *; 77); IE *mo:ri-, ride a horse; nor- [NO-R[H]E {"basket-come"}] , ride in a conveyance {litter}); (IE *mer-, listed under marko- {-K[H]O, little})

(155)?O-T[H]O ("sound-large definite plural"), *o"to:, sound ( MJ otó; 87); (IE *a- in 6. aw-{?O-FA, sounds})

(156)FO-X[H]A-¿E ("curl-pouch-like; leather boiling pouch"), *F₁oke:, pail ( "*"F₁oka:i "F₁oka:ye) ( MJ óke, pail, tub; 87); (IE *wakwy-, listed under auqw(h)-; for *kwa-, *pouch, cf. kwas-yo- {kwa- + syu:-}, basket)

(157)P[?]FO-?A, ("leg-like"), *bo:, stick ( MJ boo, id.; *); (IE bha:- in bha:t-, 1. bha/a:u-)

(158)?O-M[H]A, ("hold-activity"), *yom-, read ( MJ yóm-u, id. *); (IE yem-)

(159)P[H]O-?A(¿E-)KX[H]O ("swell-cut"), *Fo:ko:, lance ( MJ hoko, id., 176); (IE s+pe:k- in Anglo-Saxon spa:ca, listed under 1. (s)p(h)e/e:i-); NOTE: it is very interesting that for -ko in *Fo:ko:, the Middle Chinese character for ywo was employed but for ko, child, the Middle Chinese character for kuo was used; this indicates an Old Japanese distinction between reflexes of PL K[H] and KX[H] while the -w of both characters suggests that Old Japanese may have retained the [^w]-glide preceding a back vowel, which was subsequently lost. A correlation of the findings of Arisaka Hideo (1957) and the contrasts postulated here in terms of uniform Modern Japanese reflexes to Old Japanese stops and affricates as well as correlations between Middle Chinese characters with vocalic elements (i/y:u/w) that might be interpreted as representing Old Japanese glides ([^y] before -e; [^w] before -o) might also be of interest.

(160)T[?]SO-RO-FA ("arm-very=column of excrement=defecate(-ing), *do"rou, mud ( MJ doró, id.; 182); (IE 1. dher-; 5. dher-; dhreu-)

(161)T[H]O-¿A-Q[H]E ("approached-wriggle=brush against"), *chika:-, be near ( "tyake: *to:"yake:) ( MJ chiká-i, id.; *); (IE *teink-, *come together, listed under 1. tenk-; 2. tenk-; cf. Egyptian '[i]q)

(162)¿A-M[H]A-¿A ("much-bitten"), *yamaFi (better: *yama:i), illness ( MJ yámai, id.; 201); (IE yem-, *pain)

(163)¿E-HHE-F[H]E (¿E-HHE {alternate dissimilation from HHE-HHE: usual HHE-¿E} [cf. IE e:i- vs. ya:-]}, ("leave-wind=smoke hole in tent"), *iFe:, house ( MJ ié, id.; 201); (IE ei-wa, listed under 1. ei-)

(164)?A-FA-P[H]A-?A-¿E ("tops-be over-like"), *u"Fe: ( *au"Fa:i), top ( MJ ue, id.; 201); (IE *up-; in upér)

(165)FE-¿E ("stem-like"), *F₁i (for *F₁e"i), rush ( MJ i, id.; 201); (IE 1. wei-)

(166)?A-SO-¿A ("plant-pulled=withy"), *"asya, reed ( MJ áshi, id. *); (IE *asi- in OHG erin, floor (rush), listed incorrectly under a/a:s-; cf. Egyptian is.w, reeds; the sign with which this is written [M40, "bundle of reeds"] is more likely to picture a reed being stripped of its skin to be allowed to dry quickly)

(167)KX[H]E-F[H]A ("rushing"), *ka"F₁a (for *ke:"F₁a:), river ( MJ kawá, id.; 201); (IE s+k[^]he:u-, listed under sk[^]e/e:u-; cf. skeub-, go quickly, and Egyptian H(w)(")p(ii), Nile; [cf. also Hpwtii, runner])

(168)Q[H]E-¿A-Q[H]E-¿A ("all-scratched"), *"kyakya, scratch ( *ke"yakeya) ( MJ kák-u, id.; 203); (IE kaik[^]-)

(169)TS[H]A-NA-P[H]A ("extend-thing=wing-diminutive [intr.]"), *"to:ⁿba ( "to:mba "ta:mba "ta:npa [cf. tana, shelf, rack]), fly ( MJ tob-u [gerund: tonde], id.; 204); (IE temp-(from ten- + -p; cf. 1. ten-); (cf. Egyptian DnH, wing)

(170)?E-FA-M[H]A-NA ("womb [see #110]-thing=mare"), *u:"ma:[ⁿ]:, horse ( *ew₁a"ma:n) [not a Chinese loan!] ( umá, id.; 206); (see #110)

(171)P[H]E-¿E ("thin-like"), *Fi-, slight ( MJ hi-, id. [but not productive]; *); (IE pe:(i)-, *belittle; s+*pe:-, listed under sp(h)e:-; s+*pei-, *thin, listed under 2. sp(h)ei-, pull, span [*make thin])t

(172)KX[H]A-F[H]A-¿E ("hurting-like"), *ka:"F₁a:i- ( MJ kói, evil intention); (IE *kawi-, listed under kau-)

(173)T[H]O-F[H]A-MO-¿E ("swelling-overall-like"), OJ tume, fingernail, toenail ( tsume, id. ; 63); (IE teumi-, listed under te:u-, referring to the rounded hump of the fingernail; cf. Old Swedish þumi, thumb)

(174)ME-¿E-T[H]O-F[H]A ("tongue-speak=notable-collections"), OJ *mitu, fullness, capacity ( me"i-tou) ( mitsu-rin, thick forest); (IE *meit-, in Old Irish me:it, greatness, listed under 4. me:-)

(175)P[H]A-¿E-T[H]O-¿E, ("flea-like=insect+tribe-like=swarm"), *"Fachi (*"Fya:ti *"Fayeto:i) ( MJ hachi, bee, in mitsú-bachi, honeybee ); (IE pe:i-to-, swarm of bees, in Latvian spiêts, listed incorrectly under 3. sp(h)e:(i)-); cf. pe:(i)-; -pi in apis, bee; and cf. Egyptian pii, flea); [Japanese mítsu, honey, is ME-¿E-TS[H]A-F[H]A, {"tongue-like=sweet-state-plural=sweetness}"; IE 1. meit(h)-, nourishment])

For an explanation of the Proto-Language and Indo-European notational
conventions used in these essays, press here.

Old Japanese


Consonants

k g

c⁽³⁾ G sh

t d s n

ts⁽⁴⁾ j

p b F⁽⁵⁾

w m

y

r

R⁽⁶⁾(r-hachek)

l





Vowels

i , (ï), e, (ë), a, (ä), o, (ö), u

Revised Old Japanese

(see below)

Consonants

k g

(ky) (gy) (sy)

t d s n

(tw) (gy)

F b, b₁ F₁ w, w₁ m

y

r

h, h₍₁₎⁽⁷⁾



Vowels i, e, ë, a, o, ö, u



Old Japanese preserved the inherited vowels:



e a o



which represent open front, central, and back vowels, in stress-accented syllables.



1. In stress-unaccented syllables, PL E/A/O became a or 0.



2. Japanese i and u are the results of the vocalization of y and w in avocalic positions.



3. The combination of Vy and Vw resulted in mid front (e:) and mid back vowels (o:), which I have left, for simplicity's sake, in Miller's notation: ë and ö.



4. Miller's lengthened a ( ä ) and i ( ï ) are, in my opinion, not phonemic.

Combinatory Modifications

for modifications of the vowels and consonants in combination, see the

Table of Modifications

SUMMARY OF PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES FROM PL TO OLD JAPANESE

Assumptions

1. Palatal and velar glides were lost;



2. Glottalized stops were de-glottalized and voiced:

P[?] b; T[?] d; K[?] g;





a. b was subsequently spirantized to MJ

w except intervocalically, where it appears as b.



b. d+w becomes MJ *dz which is finally simplified to z in Modern Japanese.



3. Aspirated stops remained;

P[?] and P[H] p; T[?] and T[H] t; K[?] and K[H] k; but





a. p (p^h) became OJ f, Miller's (and my) F except intervocalically, where it appears as b.



b. F became MJ (0);



1) FoF₁a (P[H]O-F[H]A) MJ fu;



2) Fⁿa (P[H]A-N[H]A) MJ fa.



4. Affricates were de-affricated but aspirated affricates lengthened the following vowel;

P[?]F and PF[H] b and p(V:);

T[?]S and TS[H] d and t(V:);

K[?]X and KX[H] g and k(V:);





a. p(V:) [p^hV:] became f^(h)(V):, Miller's F and my F₁(V:) except intervocalically, where it appears as b₁.



b. after lengthening the vowel, F₁(V:) became h(V:).



5. Nasals remain; aspirated nasals are de-aspirated but lengthen the following vowel:

M/M[H] m/m(V:); N/N[H] n/n(V:);





a. except Q/Q[H], which results in ⁽ⁿ⁾g and ⁽ⁿ⁾k;



6. F w₁; F[H] F₁(V:); S s; S[H] s(V:);



a. w₁o becomes MJ o;



b. F₁(V:) MJ h;



c. the velar spirants, X and X[H], are de-spirantized to k and k(V:);



7. The voiceless laryngal stop, ? becomes (0);



8. The voiceless laryngal fricative, H (/h/), becomes h₍₁₎.



9. The voiced pharyngal fricative, ¿, becomes y;



10. The voiceless pharyngal fricative HH(/hh/) becomes h₍₁₎.



11. The trills, R and R[H], become r and r(V:).



12. Lengthened vowels (V:) appear in Japanese with rising tone (').

PROTO-LANGUAGE MONOSYLLABLES

In order for readers to judge the semantic plausibility of the analysis of Proto-Language (PL) compounds suggested here, I am including access to a table of Proto-Language monosyllables and the meanings I have provisionally assigned.

Most assignments can be exhaustively supported by data from actually attested forms but a few animates are very doubtful; and this list does not represent the "final" solution of these questions, which will only be approached when other scholars assist in refining it.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca and Cavalli-Sforza, Francesco. 1995. The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution. New York etal. Helix Books. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company

Klimov, Georgij A. 1977. Tipologija Jazykov Aktivnogo Stroja. Moscow: Nauka

-------------------------1983. Printsipy Kontensivnoi Tipologij. Moscow: Nauka

Miller, Roy Andrew. 1967. The Japanese Language. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press

Nelson, Andrew Nathaniel. 1994. The Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary. Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company

Pokorny, Julius. 1959. Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Volume I. Bern and Munich: Francke Verlag

Shibatani, Masayoshi. 1996. The Languages of Japan. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Storm, Hiroko (revision). 1993. Living Language Japanese Dictionary: Japanese-English - English-Japanese. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.

ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

NOTES

1. The Pontic stage of the Proto-Language, from which Indo-European and Afrasian developed, had only one V : (a), which became e, a, or o in Indo-European according to the Ablautgradation required by the grammatical form.

2. Final IE voiced aspirated stops + a can become unaspirated: -bha b(a); -gha -g(a); -dha. -d(a).

3. v. 2. supra

4. v. 2. supra

1. for a look at the critique which occasioned these revisions, press here.

2. The Japanese Language, 1967, Chicago, Illinois, USA, & London, England: University of Chicago Press (v. p. 64 ff)

3. Since sh (Miller's s [^v]) arises only from sy (or s^y), G (Miller's g[^v]) only from gy (or g^y), ch (Miller's c[^v]) only from ky (or k^y); and since j has no basis except as a reflex of gy (or g^y), and therefore is equivalent to g[^v], I consider c/G-j/sh as allophones of k/g/s before y (or^y), and will indicate them as ky, gy, and sy.

4. Since ts arises only out of tw (or t^w), I will indicate it as tw.

5. Miller's F, which arose as a result of P[H]/P[?]F, became MJ h; but intervocalically, it became b₁.

6. I see no comparative evidence of R (Miller's r-hachek) or l; they are the result of loans or false Altaic etymologies.

7. It is clear that h exists in Old Japanese (and Middle Japanese) as a reflex of PL H/HH. I add the subscript ₍₁₎ to it in MJ forms to distinguish it from MJ h from labials.