NTL Ancient Roman : The Quest for National Security in the Age of Rome
     Prof. Len Fallenkamp DNSS
    Tue Sep 25, 2001

    264-241 B.C. First Punic War
    218-201 B.C. Second Punic War
    Carthage - Unlimited Ends
    Roman - Limited Ends

    Second Punic War Phase I
    Second Punic War Phase II Roman returns to Fabien Strategy
    Second Punic War Phase III Roman goes on Offensive
    Second Punic War Phase IV Roman Victory...
    149-146 B.C. Third Punic War


    Classics in Strategy
    The Ancient Sumerians, Egyptians, Hittites, Israelis, and Assyrians.
    J. Boone Bartholomes

    - Neolithic war - cave art from Spain The "army of four " attacks the "army of three ".
    - Jericho
    - New Kingdom Egyptian Division - 6,500 +
    - Torsion catapult of Alexander the Great
    - Ramses II in battle แรมซิส ที่ ๒
    - Early Sumerian statues
    -

    Selected Chronology
     Jericho fortified - 7350 BC
     Sumer & Akkad - 3500 - 2300 BC
     First recorded battle - 2700 BC
     Egypt

    Old Kingdom - 2630 - 2150 BC
    Middle Kingdom - 2050 - 1640 BC
    Hyksos occupation - 1640 - 1550 BC
    New Kingdom - 1550 - 1070 BC
     Hittite empire- 1900 - 1000 BC (A member of an ancient people living in Anatolia and northern Syria about 2000-1200 B.C.)
     Israel
    Judges, Saul, David, & Solomon - c.1200 - 928 BC
    Kingdom of Israel - 928 - 722 BC
    Kingdom of Judah - 928 - 589 BC
    Assyrian empire - 900 - 612 BC

     9997 B.C. Aborigines in Australia paint on stone portrayal of organized warfare
     9996-5000 BC Cave paintings in Spain show bows in use
     7000 B.C. Fired-clay pottery
     6000 B.C. Simple bows common in northern Europe
     5000 B.C. Crop irrigation in Egypt
     4500 B.C. Badarian culture in Egypt with pottery, ivory spoons, and imported items such as malachite (green stone used for jewelry)
     4000 B.C. Domestic cattle
     4000 B.C. Wheels in Mesopotamia
     4000 B.C. Stone tools still used in Egypt and Mesopotamia
     4000 B.C. Egypt organized into nomos (provinces) ruled by nomarchs (chiefs)
     3600 B.C. Stone and wooden wheels widespread
     3800 B.C. Copper artifacts in Iran
     3500 B.C. Bread in Egypt
     3500 B.C. Egyptians have mirrors of metal
     3500-3100 B.C. Naqada culture in Egypt, which became Egyptian state
     3200 B.C. Hieroglyphic writing in Egypt
     3100 B.C. Upper and Lower Egypt united under Menes, first Pharaoh, starts Early Dynastic Period
     3100 B.C. Writing, record keeping, and formal administrative organization evident in Egypt
     3000 B.C. Bronze (mix of tin and copper) tools common in Middle East
     3000 B.C. Chariots in Mesopotamia
     3000 B.C. Ox teams pulling plows in Egypt
     3000 B.C. Cuneiform writing in Sumer
     3000 B.C. Sumerians use fillings in bad teeth
     3000 B.C. Sumerians divide day into 24 hours
     3000 B.C. Sumerians divide hour into 60 minutes
     3000 B.C. Sumerians divide minute into 60 seconds
     3000 B.C. Sumerians divide circle into 360 degrees (a very divisive people, these Sumerians)
     3000 B.C. Pharaoh Atothis writes first book on human body (actually, ABOUT it, not ON it)
     3000 B.C. Minoans flourish on Crete
     3000 B.C. Troy inhabited
     3000 B.C. Lyre in Sumeria
     3000 B.C. Athens site inhabited
     2773 B.C. Egyptians use calendar with 365 days
     2700 B.C. Chinese make silk
     2700 B.C. "Old Copper" culture, near Lake Superior, uses copper for tools and ornaments
     2700 B.C. Urak of Mesopotamia is first undisputed example of fortified city
     2700 B.C. Sumer has fully articulated military, including standing army organized along modern lines
     2700 B.C. Formal record keeping and administration used throughout Mesopotamia
     2700 B.C. First "recorded" war, between Sumer (Iraq area) and Elam (Iran area), fought in Basra area
     2686-2160 B.C. Period of Old Kingdom in Egypt, military staff developed
     2630 B.C. Egypt's first pyramid, at Saqqara, by Pharaoh Djoser
     2600 B.C. Advanced soldering skills in Mesopotamia
     2600 B.C. Paved highway in Egypt
     2600 B.C. Tablets of Shruppak (Sumer) tell of city-states equipping 600-700 soldier armies full time, first evidence of standing professional armies
     2550 B.C. Khufu's Great Pyramid at Giza, 481 feet high
     2525 B.C. First detailed account of a war, between Lagash and Umma (both Sumerian city-states), recorded in pictures on stele erected by victorious Eannatum of Lagash (victors write history)
     2525 B.C. Stele of Vultures (by Eannatum) shows war with phalanxes 6 deep by 8 wide; armor; helmets; spears; socket axes; sickle swords; and chariots pulled by onagers (wild asses)
     2500 B.C. Fortified cities are the norm in Mesopotamia
     2500 B.C. Copper helmets with leather liners common in Sumerian army, lessening impact of mace as a weapon
     2500 B.C. Battering ram developed to counter fortifications, since armies on the move needed supplies hidden in the cities
     2500 B.C. Mesopotamians develop weights and measures system
     2500 B.C. Great Pyramid at Giza
     2500 B.C. Egyptians performing surgery, and some patients live
     2400 B.C. Papyrus in Egypt
     2300 B.C. Sargon's army of 5,300 is big for the time
     2300 B.C. Sargon the Great, of Akkad, launches conquest of all of Mesopotamia, first great military dictator
     2296 B.C. Chinese record sighting of comet
     2250 B.C. First evidence of composite bow, during reign of Naram Sin, grandson of Sargon the Great -- able to penetrate leather armor, double range of simple bows
     2200 B.C. Duck decoys in use in Nevada
     2200 B.C. Fortress of Buhen, in Sudan, had walls, firing bastions, moat, and complex gates
     2200 B.C. Egypt fortifies southern area to protect against Nubian attack
     2200 B.C. Queen Semiramis of Babylon builds first tunnel under a river
     2040-1786 B.C. Middle Kingdom period in Egypt, improvements in command structure of military and government
     2000 B.C. Celts begin spreading
     2000 B.C. First zoo has opening day, in China
     1900 B.C. Assyrians united in Mesopotamia
     1900 B.C. Hittites begin smelting iron (technology transfer often guarded as it spread)
     1800 B.C. Bronze metalworking spreads through Europe (note how long after Middle East -- see 3000 B.C.)
     1800 B.C. Babylonians have multiplication tables
     1792 B.C. Hammurabi rules Babylon
     1720 B.C. Hyksos invade Egypt, with mobility-based army, chariots, composite bows (outranged Egyptians by 200 yds), penetrating ax (vs Egyptian simple ax), swords, body armor, helmets, and quivers for rapid bowfire
     1720 B.C. Hyksos establish capital at Avaris
     1700 B.C. Knossos on Crete destroyed by fire
     1674 B.C. Hyksos capture Memphis
     1674 B.C. Half of Egypt ruled by foreign Hyksos kings, other half by Thebes
     1600 B.C. Greek hoplites popularize armor
     1600 B.C. Mycenae (Greece) flourishes
     1600 B.C. Water clock in Egypt
     1570 B.C. New Kingdom Pharaohs begin expansion
     1570-1546 B.C. Ahmose I of Thebes captures Avaris and drives out Hyksos invaders
     1567 B.C. Hyksos expelled from Egypt
     1546-1526 B.C. Amenhotep I begins Egyptian drive into Asia
     1525-1512 B.C. Thutmose I pacifies Nubia
     1512-1504 B.C. Thutmose II pushes Egypt to the edge of Syria
     1504-1450 B.C. Thutmose III, greatest warrior pharaoh (won 17 of 17 campaigns), established peak Egyptian power, adopted best of Hyksos weapons and mobility, and added archers on chariots, reserve forces, communication improvements (such as semaphore) and intelligence gathering
     1500 B.C. Glassmaking perfected in Middle East, including bottles in Egypt
     1500 B.C. Sundials in Egypt
     1500 B.C. Phoenicians found city of Tangier in North Africa
     1500 B.C. Pyramids are out, cutting tombs into rock is in
     1450 B.C. Mycenae dominates Aegean
     1450 B.C. Minoans overrun by mainland Greeks
     1450 B.C. Egypt reaches greatest extent, through the efforts of Thutmose III
     1380 B.C. Nefertiti is queen-consort to Akhenaten in Egypt
     1361 B.C. Tutankhamen king of Egypt at age 9
     1320 B.C. Mycenae reaches its peak
     1300 B.C. Hittites first employ iron for weapons
     1300 B.C. Egyptian army has special field intelligence and commander's conferences for staff planning on the battlefield
     1290-1224 B.C. Ramses II, master builder pharaoh, known to Greeks as Ozymandias, has total army of 100,000
     1288 B.C. Battle of Kadesh, Ramses II and an army of 20,000 ambushed by 16,000 Hittites, including 2,500 chariots. Ramses escapes from trap and counterattacks as Hittites are looting the field. Subsequent stalemate begins 17 fruitless war years.
     1200 B.C. Hittites overrun by the Sea Peoples (mostly displaced from Aegean region by northern invaders, the Sea Peoples included Philis-tines and other groups who later settled in Palestine and surrounding area)
     1200 B.C. Iron smelting perfected (in only 700 years) and as Hittites are scattered, their ironsmiths spread the knowledge
     1200 B.C. Olmec civilization by Gulf of Mexico; includes written language, use of numbers, large temples, and intricate statues
     1194-1163 B.C. Ramses III, last of great New Kingdom rulers
     1190 B.C. Trojan War (between Troy and Mycenae)
     1100 B.C. Phoenicians found Cadiz, Iberian Peninsula
     1100 B.C. Mycenae falls to invaders
     1100-800 B.C. Age of Darkness in Aegean area, Dorian and Ionian invasions interrupt Mycenaean civilization
     1020 B.C. Israelite tribes united under Saul
     1000 B.C. Jerusalem becomes Israeli capital
     1000 B.C. Saul succeeded by David
     972 B.C. Solomon succeeds David
      900 B.C. Celts spread through Gaul
      900 B.C. First recorded mention of symbol for zero, in India
      883 B.C. Assyrian empire expands
      814 B.C. Phoenicians found Carthage
      800 B.C. Corinth founded
      776 B.C. First Olympic Games
      753 B.C. Romulus and Remus found Rome
      750 B.C. Homer writing
      750 B.C. Caste system firmly established in India
      750 B.C. Etruscans expand Italian colonies
      750 B.C. Greek colony of Cumae in Italy
      734 B.C. Corinth settles Corcyra (Corfu)
      732 B.C. Assyria takes Damascus
      729 B.C. Assyria takes Babylon
      722 B.C. Assyria takes Israel
      721 B.C. Sargon II forms last Assyrian dynasty (but he didn't know it at the time)
      715 B.C. Sparta beats Messenia (details at 11) in First Messenian War
      712-612 B.C. Assyrians dominate Fertile Crescent
      700 B.C. Assyrians: 150-200,000 in army, with combined arms field armies of 50,000 mixed infantry, chariots, and cavalry
      700 B.C. Biremes (two banks of oars) developed
      700 B.C. Coins used in Lydia (Turkey)
      700 B.C. Iron begins replacing copper in Europe
      700 B.C. Saddle developed by Scythians (but no stirrups, yet)
      691 B.C. Assyrian 34-mile aqueduct carries water to Nineveh
      689 B.C. Assyrians destroy Babylon after it revolts
      688 B.C. Boxing added to Olympics
      671 B.C. Assyrians capture part of Egypt
      663 B.C. Assyria peaks out
      660 B.C. Byzantium (Istanbul) established
      650 B.C. First reference of triremes (three rows of oars)
      640 B.C. Kingdom of Macedonia started
      625 B.C. King Cyaxares unites Median tribes
      624 B.C. Horse racing added to Olympics
      616 B.C. Etruscan king Tarquinius Priscus rules Rome
      612 B.C. Medes and Babylonians sack Nineveh, and Assyrian empire falls
      610-545 B.C. Greek scientist/philosopher Thales of Miletus teaches value of using reason and observation to understand the world
      609 B.C. Necho II is Pharaoh of Egypt, Necho canal links Nile with Red Sea
      605-562 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar II extends his empire and builds the Hanging Gardens
      600 B.C. Greek colony of Poseidonia (Paestum), Italy
      600 B.C. Greek colony of Massilia (Marseilles)
      600-509 B.C. Estruscan dominance of Rome
      600 B.C. Chinese practice cultivating crops in rows and hoeing intensively -- not practiced in Europe widely until 18th century
      594 B.C. The archon named Solon brings BIG social reform to Athens. Archons were among chief magistrates of Athens. Solon brought laws which ended enslavement for debt, intro- duced right of appeal, amended methods for contracts and taxation, and reduced powers of hereditary aristocracy over the poor -- setting stage for later class struggles. His name became term commonly used to describe any wise lawgiver.
      586 B.C. Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar II destroy Jerusalem, and take Jews into captivity
      585 B.C. Greek scientist/philosopher Thales of Miletus predicts solar eclipse
      563-483 B.C. Buddha
      561 B.C. Peisistratus is tyrant of Athens, meaning one who rules without legal warrant, but not necessarily good or evil ruler
      556-539 B.C. Nabonidus, King of Babylon, is first known archaeologist (he didn't have to dig far)
      551 B.C. Birth of Confucius, Chinese philosopher who taught you should treat others as you would be treated
      551-478 B.C. Confucius
      550 B.C. Lao-Tzu outlines philosophy of Taoism
      550 B.C. First Greek plays
      539 B.C. Cyrus the Great (Persian) conquers Babylon
      537 B.C. Persians free Jews from Babylonian rule
      530 B.C. Cyrus the Great killed in battle
      525 B.C. Persians under Cambyses II (son of Cyrus) whip Egypt
      512 B.C. Darius I (Persian) conquers Byzantium (doyou think he called himself "the first"?)
      510 B.C. Spartan king Cleomenes I overthrows Athenian tyrant Hippias
      509 B.C. Rome becomes republic after throwing out the last king
      507 B.C. Cleisthenes gives democracy to Athens
      500 B.C. First record of use of bow and arrow in North America, perhaps brought from Asia
      500 B.C. "The Art of War," by Sun Tzu, mentions powerful crossbows firing arrows
      500 B.C. Persian Empire near its peak
      499-448 B.C. Greek-Persian War
      494 B.C. Spartan king Cleomenes I defeats city of Argos
      493 B.C. Rome allied with Latin League, the group of cities in the Latium district around Rome
      490 B.C. Corinth foils plan of Spartan king Cleomenes I to reinstall Hippias as tyrant of Athens (apparently Cleomenes thought Hippias would be easier to handle than a democratic Athens)
      490 B.C. Greeks bust Persian chops at Marathon
      490 B.C. Battle of Marathon: 24,000 Persians vs 10,000 Greeks; 6,400 Persian dead, 192 Athenians dead
      490-486 B.C. Massive Persian preparations for going after Greece again
      486 B.C. Egypt revolts against Persia, delaying Darius' rematch with Greece
      485 B.C. Darius dies and Xerxes, his son, is king of Persia
      484 B.C. Persians put down Egyptian revolt
      480 B.C. Greek philosopher Heraclitus of Ephesus active
      480 B.C. Carthaginian sea captain, Hanno, explores coast of West Africa with his fleet
      480 B.C. Greek philosopher Pythagoras of Samos dies (but left us his theorem)
      480 B.C. Xerxes builds bridge across Hellespont, using 774 anchored boats
      480 B.C. Greeks get big navy win over Persians at Salamis, and Xerxes has a ringside seat
      480 B.C. Persians squeak by Thermopylae, beat Greeks, and loot and burn Athens (sounds like a soccer game, with fans)
      480 B.C. Xerxes goes back to Persia, leaving Mardonius to mop up the Greek war
      479-431 B.C. Golden Age of Athens
      479 B.C. Aristides and Pausanias lead Greeks over Persians at Plataea, destroying Mardonius and his army
      479 B.C. Greeks land in Asia Minor and defeat Persian force at Mycale (Greeks lead the series 4-1 )
      478 B.C. Delian League established to maintain Greek naval supremacy in Aegean, get Persians off Greek islands, and free Greek colonies in Asia Minor
      469-399 B.C. Socrates
      466 B.C. Greek Cimon defeats Persians at Eurymedon, final battle to free Greeks in Asia Minor
      465 B.C. Xerxes assassinated; son Artaxerxes I succeeds him
      460 B.C. Pericles influential in Athens
      460-359 B.C. Hippocrates
     460-445 B.C. FIRST PELOPONNESIAN WAR, between Athens and Corinth-Sparta
     450 B.C. Some of Delian League think Persian threat is gone; they try to quit; they sleep with the fishes when Athens says "NO"
      450 B.C. Delian League becomes essentially Athenian empire, provoking fear and opposition in Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, and other cities
      447 B.C. Parthenon construction started
      445 B.C. "Thirty-Year Peace," initiated by Pericles, ends First Peloponnesian War
      445 B.C. Rome removes ban on marriage between patricians and plebeians
      435 B.C. Naval war between Corinth and Corcyra (Corfu): Corinth allied with Sparta; Corcyra allied with Athens
      433 B.C. Athens intervenes in naval war between Corinth and Corcyra
      432-404 B.C. SECOND PELOPONNESIAN WAR
      432 B.C. Sparta declares war against Athens
      432 B.C. Parthenon finished
      431 B.C. Athens can put forth 13,000 hoplites; 16,000 older garrison soldiers; 1,200 mounted men; and 1,600 archers
      431-421 B.C. The Archidamian War, first phase of Second Peloponnesian War
      431-430 B.C. Sparta ravages Attica
      430 B.C. Herodotus writes History of Persian Wars (if you want to look good in history, you better write it)
      430 B.C. Pestilence hits Athens, behind her walls, and one fourth of population dies
      429 B.C. Pericles dies from the pestilence
      427 B.C. Revolts of Corcyra and Lesbos against Athens
     427 B.C. First Sicilian expedition by Athens
      427 B.C. Sparta and Thebes destroy Plataea, Athens' ally
      425 B.C. Athenians under Cleon and Demosthenes win at Pylos and Sphacteria, an island off southwestern Greek coast, and capture Spartan prisoners. Sparta sues for peace
      425 B.C. Oedipus Rex, play by Sophocles, performed (Greece enters its Freudian period)
      424 B.C. Boetians use flame thrower against wooden walls of Delium
      424-422 B.C. Spartan general Brasidas leads expedition into Thrace to strike at Athenian posses-sions in that region
      422 B.C. Spartan general Brasidas and Athenian general Cleon killed at Amphipolis
      421-413 B.C. Peace of Nicias and Sicilian Expedition, second phase of Second Peloponnesian War
      421 B.C. Athens can put forth 1,300 hoplites and 1,000 horsemen
      421 B.C. Peace of Nicias, between Spartan and Athenian sides, scheduled to last 50 years ... but sporadic fighting continues
      418 B.C. Sparta wins A BIG ONE at Battle of Mantinea
      418 B.C. Melian Dialogue, where Athens discusses the punishment island of Melos should get formisbehavin' -- the decision, kill all the men (WHAT KIND OF A DIALOGUE IS THAT?)
      415 B.C. Athenians send an expedition to conquer Sicily (as foreboding music plays)
      415 B.C. Alcibiades defects to Sparta
      414-404 B.C. The Ionian War, the final phase of the Second Peloponnesian War
      414 B.C. Sparta joins Syracuse against Athens
      413 B.C. Sparta establishes fort at Decelea, defeats Athenian force in Great Harbor of Syracuse; captures and kills Nicias and Demosthenes
      412 B.C. Athenian counterattacks bring victories at Chinos and Miletus
      412-411 B.C. Some of Athenian allies revolt, Persians join Spartan side, Athens raises another fleet, AND GIVES ITS COMMAND TO ALCIBIADES, the same guy who earlier betrayed Athens to Sparta (these Athenians would be good to have on your parole board)
     411 B.C. Athenian naval victory over Spartan fleet at Hellespont
      411 B.C. End of Thucydides' History
      410 B.C. Alcibiades whoops a joint Spartan and Persian force, Sparta suggests peace, Athens refuses (greed is an ugly thing)
      409 B.C. Carthaginians attack and seize cities in Sicily (Athens could have used these guys)
      408 B.C. Persian king Darius II sends his younger son Cyrus to govern Asia Minor, and help Sparta against Athens
      408-407 B.C. Sparta allied with Persia
      406 B.C. Carthaginians continue conquest of Sicily
      405 B.C. Athenian fleet almost totally destroyed by Spartan admiral Lysander, when he catches it on the beach at Aegospotami (triremes normally came to shore at night, but you don't want to sleep later than opponent)
      405 B.C. Athens besieged
      405 B.C. Dionysius (not a Carthaginian) becomes ruler in Syracuse
      404 B.C. Athens surrenders
      404 B.C. SECOND PELOPONNESIAN WAR ENDS -- Sparta the winner
      404 B.C. Egypt gains independence from Persia
      401-400 B.C. Cyrus the Younger leads expedition against his older brother Artaxerxes (now ruler of Persia)
      400 B.C. Cyrus the Younger dies in battle, and his 10,000 Greek mercenaries fight long route back to Black Sea, through Persian army and a bunch of other folks ("Retreat of the Ten Thousand" written of by Xenophon)
      400 B.C. Greek physician Hippocrates active
      400 B.C. Greek philosopher Democritus suggests world is made up of tiny particles called atoms
      400 B.C. Greek gastraphetes ("belly shooter"), early large crossbow, used as heavy artillery
      400 B.C. Trace harness developed in China. The concept, of a yoke across the chest with traces connected, may have originated in use with humans used to pull boats on canals. The harness will arrive in Europe in 568 A.D.
      400 B.C. Cast iron in use in China. Would be in use in Scandinavia by late 8th century A.D. and throughout Europe by 1380 A.D.
      399 B.C. Socrates executed for being impious and contributing to the delinquency of minors (ah, back when crime didn't pay)
      399-394 B.C. Spartans war against Persians in Asia Minor (how quickly those allies are forgotten)
      397 B.C. Dionysius successfully defends Syracuse against Carthaginians
      397 B.C. Dionysius uses siege towers and catapults against Motya
      396 B.C. Rome's first biggie -- destroying Etruscan city of Veii
      394-393 B.C. Athenian admiral Conon, aided by a Persian fleet, defeats Spartans and restores fortifications of Athens
      390 B.C. Gallic king Brennus sacks Rome and burns it, and also smashes many of Rome's northern allies (payback to come later)
      390 B.C. First known kite, in China
      387 B.C. Plato founds Academy
      387-386 B.C. Persian king helps Greeks negotiate peace
      386 B.C. Thebans and Athenians renew war with Sparta
      371 B.C. Theban king Epaminondas defeats Spartans at Leuctra; Thebes dominates Greece.
      370 B.C. Plato writes The Republic
      362 B.C. Athens and Sparta form alliance against Thebes
      362 B.C. Theban king Epaminondas wins big victory at Mantinea, but is killed, and Theban power quickly peters out
      359-336 B.C. Philip II is king of Macedonia, having earlier been a hostage and student of Epaminondas, at Thebes, where Philip took lots of notes
      359 B.C. Philip II begins thorough training program for Macedonian army
      350 B.C. Philip II of Macedon organizes special military engineer group
      343 B.C. Rome begins Samnite wars, which last 50 years but secure central Italy
      342-270 B.C. Epicurus and followers, Epicureans, advocating less dependence on material things
      341 B.C. Persians reconquer Egypt
      339 B.C. Philip II of Macedonia defeats Athens and Thebes at Chaeronea, establishing Macedonian dominion over Greece
      338 B.C. Rome defeats Latin League (old ally of Rome, there's a lesson here) in Latin Wars
      338-146 B.C. Hellenistic Age
      336 B.C. Philip II assassinated; Alexander succeeds him
      336-323 B.C. Alexander rules
      336 B.C. Rumors of Alexander's death (while he is fighting northern barbarians) cause several Greek cities to revolt
      336 B.C. Alexander comes home, quickly destroys Thebes, and convinces the other cities that rumors of his death are greatly exaggerated
      334 B.C. Alexander crosses Hellespont and wins the Battle of Granicus, opening Asia to him
      333 B.C. Alexander defeats Persian king Darius III at Battle of Issus
      333 B.C. Alexander lays siege to Tyre in Phoenicia
      332 B.C. Alexander captures Tyre, Gaza, and Egypt
      332 B.C. Alexander founds Alexandria in Egypt (one of over 20 towns by that name which he founded -- not very original, is he?)
      331 B.C. Alexander defeats Darius III at Gaugamela or Battle of Arbela: Darius III has army of 300,000 infantry; 40,000 cavalry; 250 chariots; and 50 elephants -- beaten by Alex and 60,000
      327 B.C. Alexander invades India
      323 B.C. Alexander dies at Babylon; the Diadochi ("successors" in Greek) seek to control the empire
      323 B.C. Alexander's general Ptolemy I gets Egypt and Palestine
      312 B.C. Romans begin building the Via Appia (Appian Way)
      305 B.C. Seleucus I Nicatur (the Conqueror) is king of Macedonia
      300 B.C. Greek mathematician Euclid active
      300 B.C. Bantu people spread over eastern and southern Africa
      287-211 B.C. Archimedes
      279 B.C. Greeks block Gauls at Thermopylae
      270 B.C. Greek astronomer, Aristarchus, states the Earth revolves around the sun
      270-230 B.C. Alexandrian mathematician, Ctesibius, invents the organ, the water pump, the spring, and the valve
      264-241 B.C. First Punic War
      264 B.C. Carthage occupies Sicily, starting First Punic War with Rome
      264 B.C. Adulis in Ethiopia is large trade center for trade between Africa and Arabia, with goods from Europe and India as well
      264-100 B.C. Frequent bouts of pirates in greater Mediterranean Sea
      256 B.C. Romans besiege Carthage, but are beaten
      255 B.C. Roman fleet of 248 ships sunk in storm off Cape Pachymus, losing 100,000+ men, fifteen percent of military age men in Italy
      250 B.C. Greek mathematician, Archimedes, states laws of specific gravity
      241 B.C. Romans defeat Carthaginians, ending the First Punic War
      240 B.C. Eratosthenes of Cyrene calculates Earth's circumference at about 24,000 miles (in their units of course, he didn't use miles)
      240 B.C. First Latin literature, in Rome
      239 B.C. Halley's comet first recorded (but under an assumed name)
      238 B.C. Romans seize Sardinia and Corsica from Carthage
      237 B.C. Carthaginian generals Hasdrubal and Hannibal conquer lots of Iberian Peninsula
      227 B.C. Spartan king Cleomenes III defeats Achaean League
      222 B.C. Macedonian king Antigonus III helps Achaean League to defeat Sparta (don't these end- less things make you think of that phrase "what goes around comes around"?)
      222 B.C. Alexandria is center of science and learning, with 400,000 scrolls in library, and a 200 foot lighthouse to guide folks to the library
      219 B.C. Hannibal attacks Romans at Saguntum (Sagunto)
      218 B.C. Hannibal crosses Alps into Italy
      218-201 B.C. Second Punic War
      218 B.C. Rome declares war on Spain, starting Second Punic War
      218 B.C. Ticinus River Battle of Trebia River
      218 B.C. Battle of Trebia, Hannibal destroys Roman army of 40,000
      217 B.C. Battle of Lake Trasimene, Hannibal destroys Roman army of 40,000 (75% killed or captured)
      216 B.C. Hannibal is BIG (we're talking REALLY BIG) winner over Romans at Battle of Cannae, destroying Roman army of 80,000
      215-205 B.C. Macedonian-Rome Wars
      215 B.C. Great Wall of China begun (but not by Han-nibal, he had his hands full)
     212 B.C. Mathematician Archimedes killed during Roman siege of Syracuse
      206 B.C. Roman general Scipio Africanus Major beats Carthaginians in Spain
      206 B.C. Seleucid king Antiochus III takes Armenia, Parthia, and Bactria
      206 BC-220 AD Crossbows common in China during Han dynasty
      204 B.C. Roman general Scipio Africanus Major invades Africa (that's how he got his name)
      202 B.C. Battle of Zama, Second Punic War
      202 B.C. Seleucid king Antiochus III begins conquest of Syria and Palestine
      200-0 B.C. Han dynasty in China develops paper, gun- powder,and moveable type
      201 B.C. Rome, Pergamum, and Rhodes unite against Philip V of Macedonia
      200 B.C. Parisii tribe (Gauls) settle on site of Paris
      200 B.C. Iron horseshoes arrive (allowing increased speed of cavalry and greater mobility over rough ground)
      200 B.C. Parchment in wide use
      200 B.C. Stirrups in use (... IN CHINA ! ... not in the West for a long time)
      200 B.C. Gimbals in use in China -- not the department store, but the basis of gyroscopes
      200 B.C. Very expensive mail armor (from Latin macula, net)
      197 B.C. Romans defeat Macedonians at Cynoscephalae 196 B.C. Seleucid king Antiochus III invades Thrace (this is one busy guy)
      191 B.C. Antiochus III defeated by Romans at Thermopylae (no wonder ... he was wore out)
      184 B.C. Cato becomes censor of Rome (what were they writing on those parchments?) -- a censor being one of two chief magistrates who controlled registration of citizens and property, and who were entrusted with supervision of manners and morals
      183 B.C. Hannibal commits suicide to avoid surrendering to Rome (ooo, way to hurt 'em, Hannibal ... take that)
      179 B.C. Perseus is king of Macedonia, succeeding his father Philip V
      168 B.C. Jews, under Maccabees, revolt against Seleucids
      168 B.C. Romans defeat Perseus of Macedonia and abolish Macedonian monarchy (Macedonian tabloids were furious)
      157 B.C. Chinese arsenals contain 200,000+ crossbows, of such complicated high-tolerance that captured ones couldn't be duplicated by enemies, and the arrows were too short for enemy bows
      150 B.C. Hipparchus of Rhodes compiles first star catalog (and Tom Cruise wasn't in it)
      149-146 B.C. Third Punic War
      149 B.C. Third Punic War starts when Carthage attacks Roman ally Numidia
      146 B.C. Roman general Scipio Africanus Major destroys Carthage, after 3-year siege, thus ending Third (and final) Punic War
      146 B.C. Rome destroys Achaean League in Greece (good year for Rome, bad for the rest)
     139 B.C. Rome defeats Celts in Iberian Peninsula and establishes Lusitania
      130 B.C. List of Seven Wonders of the World, by poet Antipater of Sidon, comes out to rave reviews and goes to the top of the charts
      121 B.C. Rome gains control of Gallic settlement of Nimes (from which we got "de Nimes" or "denims," which is French for "the pants you wear to look cool")
      119 B.C. Han dynasty in China nationalizes natural gas, cast iron, and salt industries. The natural gas was gotten by deep drilling and used primarily to heat and speed evaporation of the brine in the salt works.
      111 B.C. China's Han dynasty annexes Annam (northern Vietnam)
      106 B.C. Rome takes Gallic city of Tolosa (Toulouse)
      105 B.C. Roman army adopts training methods used in gladiator schools
      105 B.C. Rome conquers Numidia (hey, weren't they an ally just a few lines ago?)
      100 B.C. Greek grammarian Dionysius Thrax publishes Art of Grammar
      95 B.C. Armenia, under Tigranes I, begins to expand
      91 B.C. Rome and allies begin Social War (isn't that an oxymoron?) -- allies revolted against Rome, and Rome declared that those who submitted to Rome would have Roman citizenship
      89 B.C. Roman citizenship rights granted throughout Italy
      87 B.C. Rome captured by rebels in civil war
      82 B.C. Roman general Sulla, using his privatearmy, recaptures Rome and becomes dictator in an attempt to restore the oligarchy -- a dictator was usually a chief magistrate with supreme authority, usually appointed by Senate, usually in times of emergency, and usually for a term of six months
      80 B.C. Sulla smashes Etruscans; then they become Roman citizens
      77 B.C. First "encyclopedia"...Pliny the Elder's Historia Naturalis
      73 B.C. Gladiator Spartacus leads uprising of around 40,000+ fugitive Roman slaves
      71 B.C. Spartacus killed at Lucania by Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus
      63 B.C. Roman general Pompey conquers Palestine
      60 B.C. Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar form First Roman Triumvirate
      59 B.C. Acta diurna, a news gazette, published in Rome
      58 B.C. Julius Caesar invades Gaul, starting Gallic Wars
     58-52 B.C. Gallic Wars
      57 B.C. Julius Caesar defeats the Belgae, in present day Belgium
      55 B.C. Julius Caesar invades Britain
      52 B.C. Vercingetorix unifies Gallic tribes against Rome
      51 B.C. Julius Caesar conquers Gaul, ending the Gallic War (on a galling note for Gauls)
      50 B.C. Glassblowing in Phoenicia
      49 B.C. Julius Caesar crosses Rubicon into Italy, starting a civil war
      48 B.C. Julius Caesar beats Pompey at Pharsalus (Pompey flees to Egypt, where he is assassinated)
      48 B.C. Egyptian civil war between Ptolemy III and his sister Cleopatra
      47 B.C. New Year starts on January 1st for first time, with new Roman calendar
      47 B.C. Caesar arrives in Egypt, with army, ... and likes Cleopatra ... a LOT
      47 B.C. Ptolemy killed
      46 B.C. Caesar appointed dictator of Rome
      44 B.C. Caesar assassinated
      43 B.C. Mark Anthony, Octavian (Augustus), and Lepidus are Second Roman Triumvirate
     43-41 B.C. War of the Second Triumvirate (Rome)
      42 B.C. Octavian and Mark Anthony defeat Brutus and Cassius at Philippi (these two were among the alleged killers of Caesar)
      42 B.C. Mark Anthony finds he also likes Queen Cleopatra ... a LOT
      37 B.C. Herod the Great rules Judea
      31 B.C. Octavian defeats Mark Anthony at Actium
      31 BC-450 AD Roman Empire
      30 B.C. Mark Anthony and Cleopatra commit suicide, separately
      27 B.C. Octavian is first Roman emperor, and the Senate names him Augustus (our Senate could never get away with renaming presidents, and CALLing them names just isn't the same)
      27 B.C. Octavian establishes Praetorian guard (see, he did notice what happened to Julius)
      23 B.C. Roman poet Horace writes his odes
      20 B.C. Marcus Verrius Flaccus compiles first general dictionary
      12 B.C. Rome begins attempt to grab Germany
      180-378 AD Rome Decline

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