On July 3rd, 1863, the Union Army of the Potomac struck a decisive blow to Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. The victory the Federals won at Gettysburg, PA foiled Lee's planned invasion of the North and forced Lee to return to Virginia. On July 4th, one day later, Union General Ulysses S. Grant took control of the city of Vicksburg, MS from 30,000 starving Rebel defenders, after a 43-day siege. His capture of Vicksburg marked the removal of the Confederacy from her last major stronghold along the Mississippi River. The Union now controlled the mighty Mississippi River, splitting the Confederacy in to two separate halves. The North's victory at Vicksburg was more crucial to final victory over the South than their victory at Gettysburg.

In February of 1862, Union forces under General Ulysses S. Grant seized control of Fort Donelson and Fort Henry along the Tennessee River, forcing the surrender of Nashville. His forces then steamed up the Tennessee River to Pittsburg Landing, Tenn., where, on April 6th, they were attacked by a Rebel army under Albert Sidney Johnston. More than 23,000 soldiers were killed or wounded at the battle that would be called Shiloh. The Union, however, had won an important victory at Shiloh. It marked the beginning of the North's strategy to take control of the mighty Mississippi River. Also in April of 1862, a separate Union force captured the South's most populous city, New Orleans, along the Mississippi River. They were unable to move any farther upstream, however, for heavy guns mounted at Port Hudson held them at bay. Meanwhile, Grant's forces took control of Corinth, Mississippi, forcing the Rebels out of Memphis. It was then, in the spring of 1863, that General Grant adopted a bold plan for taking Vicksburg, Mississippi. (National Park Service, 1998)

The first phase of the plan was a complete success. Grant sent three transports and eight gunboats steaming down the Mississippi past Vicksburg's defenses on the night of April 16th. Though Confederate General John C. Pemberton, commander of the Vicksburg defenses, ordered his men to fire on the Union boats, his forces inflicted little damage. They fired 525 rounds at the vessels and scored 68 hits, but sunk only one of the transports and none of the gunboats. A few nights later, volunteers ran six transports past Vicksburg. Five made it through successfully. Grant now had two of his three corps thirty miles south of Vicksburg, ready to cross the river. (McPherson, 1988)

To divert Pemberton's attention from his army's crossing, Grant sent a cavalry raid deep into the Rebel rear. On April 17th, a former music teacher from Illinois set out on what would become the most spectacular cavalry raid of the war. Benjamin Grierson, who disliked horses since one kicked him in the head as a child, lead 1,700 horsemen into the heart of Mississippi, tearing up supply lines, disrupting communication, and fighting several skirmishes. His men killed or wounded 100 rebels and took 500 prisoners at the cost of only 24 casualties. They returned to Union lines sixteen days later, after six hundred miles of riding. (McPherson, 1988)

Thanks to the success of Grierson's raid, Grant's crossing on April 30, 1863 was unopposed. With 40,000 men under his command, Grant now had a decision to make. Should he drive straight to Vicksburg, overwhelming Pemberton's force of 30,000? If he did so, there was a chance that Pemberton would combine with another army under Joseph E. Johnston, outnumbering Grant's force. Grant decided to eliminate Johnston first, then head to Vicksburg. Grant sent his men to Jackson, Miss., where they overwhelmed a small rebel force of about 6,000. Johnston was not licked yet, however, and sent a message to Pemberton, urging him to evacuate Vicksburg and unite with the 6,000 men under Johnston's command. With some reinforcements, the rebels would be powerful enough to attack Grant. Pemberton, however, disagreed. He could not leave Vicksburg undefended. While Johnston and Pemberton argued, Grant made the decision for them. On May 16th, at Champion Hill, 29,000 Union soldiers split Pemberton's mobile force, isolating one Confederate division from the main body of rebels. Pemberton fell back to the Big Black River, ten miles east of Vicksburg. On May 17th, an impetuous brigade, sore from not sharing in the previous day's glory, surged forward without orders and routed the left flank of the Confederate forces. The demoralized rebels once again fell back, this time all the way to Vicksburg. Pemberton entrenched his army, and awaited an attack by Grant. (McPherson, 1988)

Without resting his troops, Grant ordered an attack on the Vicksburg defenses on May 19th. With confidence formed from the victories they had won just days before, Union boys charged the rebel lines.

"As they emerged into the open the rebel line came alive with sheets of fire that stopped the bluecoats in their tracks. Ensconced behind the most formidable works of the war, the rebels had taken heart. They proved the theory that one soldier under cover was the equal of at least three in the open." (McPherson, 1988)

Grant's force was bloodied, but were still undaunted. On May 22nd, he ordered a second attack. Again, the Yankees charged, facing heavy enemy fire. They held some key points for a while, only to be driven from them by counterattacks. Pemberton's soldiers held out once again, and prevented the Federals from taking Vicksburg.

Following the May repulses, Grant's forces began construction of their own network of trenches and settled down for a siege. Grant called for reinforcements from Memphis and built his army up to 70,000 soldiers. He sent several divisions to keep an eye on Johnston, who had scraped together an army of about 30,000 men. On May 24, Grant wired Washington, informing them that victory was "in our grasp. The fall of Vicksburg and the capture of most of the garrison can only be a question of time." (McPherson, 1988)

Pemberton agreed with Grant's conclusion, and informed Johnston that he intended to hold Vicksburg, labeled by Pemberton "the most important point in the Confederacy," as long as possible. However, Pemberton could only hold on if Johnston broke Union lines and liberated Pemberton from Grant's siege. Johnston, who was in desperate need of reinforcements, waited. But no reinforcements could be sent. Robert E. Lee insisted that he needed every man for his invasion of Pennsylvania. General Richard Taylor, in Louisiana, reluctantly sent three brigades to aid Johnston, only to see them stopped short at Milliken's Bend, north of Vicksburg. (McPherson, 1988)

As the siege wore on, the spirits of the 30,000 soldiers and 3,000 civilians trapped in the city sagged. Soldiers lived on quarter rations. Half of the defenders were on the sicklist, many with scurvy. Skinned rats appeared in meat markets. Dogs and cats mysteriously disappeared from the streets. The stresses of living under siege drove many to the brink of insanity. Wrote one officer, "a building will have to be arranged for the accommodation of maniacs" if the siege lasted much longer. (McPherson, 1988)

Throughout the month of June, Union soldiers dug approaches toward Pemberton's lines in a classic siege operation. Grant's engineers also tunneled under rebel defenses, placing explosives. Holes were blown in rebel lines on June 25th and July 1st. Confederate defenders, however, closed the gaps. The Yankees then prepared an even larger mine to be set off on July 6th, which would be followed by a full-scale assault. Before the attack could take place, however, white flags would be flown above Confederate lines. On June 28th, Pemberton received a letter from "Many Soldiers:" (McPherson, 1988)

"If you can't feed us, you had better surrender, horrible as the idea is, than suffer this noble army to disgrace themselves by desertion....This army is now ripe for mutiny, unless it can be fed." (McPherson, 1988)

Pemberton discussed the situation with his division commanders, who assured him that the sickly and starving rebel soldiers could not make a successful break-out attack. On July 3rd, 1863, Pemberton asked Grant for terms for surrender. Living up to a reputation he had created for himself at Fort Donelson over a year earlier, Grant insisted on unconditional surrender. After considering the task of shipping 30,000 captives north to prison camps, Grant offered to parole the prisoners. He would allow the rebel defenders to return to their homes as long as they swore not to re-enlist in the military. (McPherson, 1988)

On July 4th, 1863, the Stars and Stripes was raised above the courthouse in Vicksburg. A Union private from Ohio described the day as "...the most glorious Fourth I ever spent." The southern defenders, however, felt that the humiliation of surrendering on July 4th added insult to injury. (McPherson, 1988) The occupation troops, however, did nothing to rub salt in to the defenders wounds. The victors did not cheer at the surrender. One Federal division, however, did give three cheers for the gallant defenders of Vicksburg. (Derry, 1895)

Vicksburg, and the Mighty Mississippi, were finally in the hands of the Union. "The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea," announced President Abraham Lincoln. Indeed, with the surrender of Port Hudson on July 9th to another Union force, all Confederate positions along the Mississippi had been taken. The Confederacy became two halves of a whole, with the east and west portions of the Confederacy divided in to what might as well have been separate countries. (McPherson, 1988)

While Grant was laying siege to Vicksburg in the West, Confederate General Robert E. Lee was marching through Pennsylvania, with a force of 75,000 men under his command. His invasion of Pennsylvania was made possible only after a major victory over Union General Joseph "Fighting Joe" Hooker's Army of the Potomac at Chancellorsville a month earlier. On May 1st, Confederate General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson crushed an entire corps of Union soldiers after a bold flanking maneuver. Jackson's success carried Lee's army to victory the following day. Despite being outnumbered almost three-to-one, Lee's men were able to inflict 17,278 casualties upon the Northerners, while suffering only 12,821. However, one casualty happened to be the irreplaceable General Stonewall Jackson. While scouting the enemy lines the night of the 1st, Jackson wandered out in front of his lines. Upon returning, he was fired upon by some of his own men. His left arm was shattered, and amputated. Jackson seemed to be making a recovery when he contracted pneumonia. Dying on May 10th, the day marked the end of an era in Lee's tactics. Never again would his army attempt the bold flanking maneuvers that won such smashing victories at Chancellorsville and other battles. (Robertson, 1995)

Despite the loss of Jackson, Lee remained confident. Backed by his victory at Chancellorsville, Lee prepared for an invasion of the North. On June 3rd, 1863, his men crossed the Potomac River and marched into Maryland. As Lee's infantry moved northward, his cavalry, under General J.E.B. Stuart, broke off from the main body and moved to scout the Union army. On June 9th, Stuart's men, who had been assembled near Brandy Station, were attacked by 10,000 Federal cavalrymen. The Confederates, with an almost equal number of troops, were able to win a hard-earned victory, but the Union cavalry earned new respect. Sore from the near defeat at Brandy Station, Stuart sought to redeem himself. He set off to ride a circle around the Union Army of the Potomac. Such a feat was rarely attempted. Stuart, however, had succeeded in doing so twice before. Hungering for past glory, Stuart moved around to the right side of the Union forces, separating himself from the main body of rebels. The Federals moved faster than Stuart expected, however, and he was not able to get around them. (Robertson, 1995)

Without contact from General Stuart, General Lee was left blind. He had no idea of where his enemy was or what its strength was. Therefore, he moved through enemy territory not knowing what was ahead of him. His army, now entirely in Pennsylvania, was widely separated. As far as he knew, the enemy had not yet moved across the Potomac. (Stuart surely would have contacted him if the Federals were on the move.) But the Army of the Potomac had actually crossed the Potomac on 25th and 26th of June, a fact which Lee did not learn until the 28th. He also learned that the command of the army had switched from General Joseph Hooker to General George Meade. (American Heritage, 1996)

With the Union Army squarely on his flank, Lee hastened to concentrate his forces and prepare for battle. The handiest place to do so was the small town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Moving north, Meade collided with Lee, where, from July 1st to July 3rd, the bloodiest battle of the war was fought. (American Heritage, 1996)

The Battle of Gettysburg involved over 170,000 soldiers. By the time it ended, 50,000 of them would be casualties. In 1863, Gettysburg's population stood at 2,400. A network of roads passed through the town, making it an obvious area to consolidate an army. The terrain, dominated by hills and trees provided defensive positions for the armies that would meet there. On July 1st, Lieutenant General Ambrose Powell Hill, in command of one of General Lee's three corps, sent two divisions toward Gettysburg to test the strength of Union forces seen there the previous day. At around midmorning, Confederate infantry clashed with Union cavalry just west of the town. The Battle of Gettysburg was underway. Hill's men, deploying on Herr Ridge, advanced, striking Federal troops stationed on McPherson Ridge. The Confederate attack was repulsed, but the commanding Union officer, Major General John F. Reynolds, was killed. During a lull that followed the battle, reinforcements arrived for both sides. Toward midafternoon, Confederate General Richard S. Ewell, another of Lee's corps commanders, arrived on the field. His men attacked the Union Eleventh Corps in the north, as Hill's men renewed their assault on McPherson Ridge. After a fierce fight, the Confederates drove the Federals from their position, causing them to retreat to Cemetery Hill, to the south of Gettysburg. There, Major Generals Oliver O. Howard and Winfield S. Hancock rallied them, then sent some units to the east, to occupy Culp's Hill. (Kennedy, 1990)

Most of the remaining forces of both armies arrived during the night of July 1-2 and prepared for battle. Meade positioned his army in a fishhook-shaped line, anchored on Culp's Hill and two hills to the south of Cemetery Ridge, which held the Union center, called the Round Tops. At noon on July 2nd, Major General Daniel Sickles, commander of the Union Third Corps, made an egregious error when he advanced his 10,000-man corps from Cemetery Ridge to high ground along the Emmittsburg Road. Later that afternoon, Confederate General James Longstreet, the last of Lee's corps commanders, made an attack on Sickles' lines, sending three divisions, under Major Generals John B. Hood, Lafayette McLaws, and Richard Anderson, against Union lines. Longstreet's forces smashed Sickles' lines, but prompt action by other Union officers brought an end to the Confederate attack at dusk. Meanwhile, General Ewell sent troops against the Union positions on Culp's Hill. Though some of his troops reached the crest of the hill, they were driven back by heavy enemy fire. As night fell, the fighting died down. (Kennedy, 1990)

Although achieving only minimal success on July 2nd, Lee remained optimistic. Early on July 3rd, he ordered a massive attack against the center of the Union lines on Cemetery Ridge. The attack, which would later be known as Pickett's Charge, was to be supported by Ewell's troops, who had gained a foothold on Culp's Hill, and by a flanking attack by J.E.B. Stuart's 10,000 cavalrymen, who had arrived late on July 2nd. However, Ewell's troops were driven from Culp's Hill before the main assault was launched, and Stuart's cavalry was stopped short by Union cavalry under Brigadier General David M. Gregg. Stuart charged the Union troopers, only to be stopped short. He would fail to break through Gregg's lines. While 15,000 Confederate soldiers prepared to charge Union lines, Lee ordered his guns to bombard the Union center. His batteries fired for two hours, spitting shell after shell at the Union defenders. At about 3:00 p.m., the firing ceased. Three Confederate divisions, led by Major Generals George Pickett, Henry Heth (now lead by Brig. General Johnston Pettigrew) and William D. Pender (now lead by Major General Isaac Trimble) marched in long lines across an open, rolling field. Union shells tore through their ranks, but the brave Confederate troops marched onward. After crossing the Emmittsburg Road, musket-fire ripped through Confederate ranks. A mass of men, lead by the gallant Brig. General Lewis Armistead, who stabbed his sword through his hat and waved it over his head, inspiring his men to press onward, penetrated Union lines, but their firepower and momentum failed. General Armistead was mortally wounded, dying two days later. Every soldier who penetrated Union lines was killed or captured. Those that escaped death limped back to Confederate lines, defeated. Pickett's Charge was over. Of the 15,000 men who made the assault, 7,000 were killed, wounded, or captured, a loss of nearly one-half. Pickett's division suffered over 60 percent casualties. (Kennedy, 1990)

Lee's dreams of a decisive victory on Northern soil had been dashed. On the night of July 4th, Lee ordered his army to retreat. He had lost 28,000 men, over one-third of his command. Union losses were about 23,000. (Kennedy, 1990)

"After this defeat Lee was never again able to launch a major offensive. His road from Gettysburg was long and hard, and ultimately led to Appomattox Court House and surrender." (Kennedy, 1990)

The effects that the Union victories at Vicksburg and Gettysburg had on the outcome of the Civil War are extreme. Lee's defeat at Gettysburg prevented the Confederacy from winning a victory on Northern soil. If Lee were successful at Gettysburg, he would gain international legitimacy, giving the Confederacy foreign support. His defeat at Gettysburg also put an end to his invasion, which could have culminated in an attack on Washington D.C. itself. Gettysburg was also the "invincible" Lee's first true defeat. Lee lost over one-third of his army at Gettysburg, shrinking his numbers to less than 50,000. The victory at Gettysburg was also a major morale boost for the North, who had not seen any clear victories in the Eastern Theater for several months. It gave the North new hope for victory over the Confederacy. Today, the Battle of Gettysburg is known as the high-water mark of the Confederacy. The South's military might climaxed at Pickett's Charge. However, the Battle of Gettysburg was not nearly the end of Robert E. Lee. He would keep his army intact for two more years. Lee would also see more victories, such as during the Wilderness Campaign, when he soundly defeated the Army of the Potomac at Cold Harbor. In fact, Lee would not surrender to enemy forces until April 9th, 1865, almost two years after Gettysburg. Also, though Lee never did launch any more major invasions of the North, he did make another attempt. On July 9th, 1864, a year after Gettysburg, Confederate General Jubal Anderson Early, under Lee's orders, led 14,000 rebel soldiers on an invasion across the Potomac River that would bring the rebels all the way to the outskirts of Washington itself. Near Frederick, Maryland, Early clashed with about 6,000 Federal soldiers under Major General Lewis Wallace. The resulting battle was a defeat for the Union forces tactically, but was a crucial victory strategically. Without the valiant stand made by General Wallace, Early would have marched into Washington virtually unopposed. As it turned out, General Ulysses S. Grant, commander of all U.S. Armies, was able to mobilize troops to defend the capitol. A potential disaster had been prevented. If Early had taken the capitol, the war might well have ended with a Confederate victory. Finally, while Lee suffered heavy casualties, the Federals did not come out of the battle without casualties of their own, including a very promising young officer, John F. Reynolds. (Kennedy, 1990)

The capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi on the Fourth of July was a very important victory for the North. Grant took control of the Mississippi River, dividing the Confederacy in to two halves. The rebels would no longer be able to freely move across the Mississippi. Also, Union forces could now travel up the full length of the river undeterred. Grant's forces also seized the Mississippi Valley Area, and forced the surrender of an entire Confederate Army. Unlike Lee in Pennsylvania, Pemberton was not allowed a chance to fight again. His entire army was eliminated. Even better, Grant's casualties during the Vicksburg Campaign were very light in comparison to the rebels'. His victory at Vicksburg prevented Johnston from combining his forces with that of Pemberton's. If Johnston and Pemberton had united, Grant would face a powerful foe. As it turned out, Grant was able to defeat Pemberton, then tackle Johnston. (McPherson, 1988)

With their defeat at Gettysburg, the Confederates lost more than they could well afford to lose. Their losses at Vicksburg, however, could not be afforded at all. Defeat at Vicksburg inflicted a wound that would later prove mortal to the fledgling nation that had but little hope of survival to begin with.

© 1997 rjtkm@cport.com

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