Forest Conservation Concepts and Terms by Paul L. Aird

Forest Conservation Concepts and Terms

Compiled by Paul L. Aird
(November/December 1994, VOL. 70, NO. 6, The Forestry Chronicle)

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abiotic in the absence of life; concerning the non-living components of the environment

acidic deposition the process by which acids are deposited in rain, snow, etc., called "wet deposition", and in "dry deposition", when particles such as fly ash, sulphates and nitrates, and gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide are deposited on, or absorbed onto, surfaces. The dry particles or gases can be converted into acids after deposition or absorption when they contact water (Canada, House of Commons 1981)

acidic precipitiation rain, snow, sleet, hail or fog, usually with an acidity below pH 5.6. (The pH scale runs from zero, maximum acidity, to 14, no acidity; pH 7.0 represents a neutral solution. the pH of normal rain, 5.6, is somewhat acidic because of chemical reactions involving carbon dioxide in the earth's atmosphere.) Acidic precipitaion is primarily the result of emissions of gases of sulphur and nitrogen oxide which are transformed into sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively, as they are transported over distances of hundreds to thousands of kilometres from sources (Canada, House of Commons 1981)

acid rain rain with an acidity below about pH 5.6 (Canada, House of Commons 1981); often used as a technically incorrect synonyms for acidic deposition or acidic precipitation

afforestation the establishment of trees by sowing, planting or natural regeneration on an area from which trees have always or very long been absent (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983)

agroforestry a collective name for land use systems and practices where woody perennials are deliberately integrated with crops and/or animals on the same land management unit. The integration can be either in spatial mixture or in temporal sequences. There are normally both ecological and economic interactions between the woody and non-woody components in agroforestry (International Council for Research in Agroforestry 1991)

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bio-energy the kinetic energy released from biomass when it is eaten, burned or converted into fuel, or the potential energy embodied in biomass (Commission of the European Communities 1983, Hendrickson 1993)

biological accumulation (bioaccumulation) also termed biological amplification and biological magnification; the gradual increase in the concentration of a persistent substance in an aging organisms, or in a succession of organisms from primary producers through primary to secondary consumers

biological diversity (biodiversity) the variety and variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (United Nations Environment Programme 1992)

ecosystem diversity the variety and variability of habitats, biotic communities, abiotic components, and ecological processes existing in a given region (McNeely et al. 1990)

genetic diversity the variation in the genetic composition of individuals within or among species, varieties or breeds; the heritable genetic variation within and among populations (World Resources Institute et al. 1992)

species diversity refers to the variety of living organisms on earth and has been variously estimated to be between 5 and 100 million or more, though only about 1.4 million have actually been described (McNeely et al. 1990); species diversity takes into account species numbers, populations, and distribution withina given unit area. It may be considered at three levels: within a habitat diversity (alpha diversity); between habitat diversity (beta diversity), which accounts for changes along topographical or climatic gradients between habitats; and overall diversity (gamma diversity) for given large area encompassing many habitats (Cody 1986, Tho 1991); see also "species richness" and "taxonomic diversity"

biological productivity the capacity to produce biomass; the production of biomass

biomass the weight or its estimated equivalent, of organic matter, including animals, plants, and microorganisms, living or dead, above or below the soil surface (Aird 1979)

biome an extensive complex or community of organisms occurring together, e.g. the northern coniferous forest. It is both determined by, and reacts on, climate and soil (Tansley 1935)

biosphere that part of the earth and atmosphere capable of supporting living organisms (Australia, Resource Assessment Commission 1991)

biota all of the organisms found in a given area (Keystone Center 1991)

biotic pertaining to life; concerning the living component of the environment

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carbon reservoir see "reservoir, carbon"

carbon sink see "sink, carbon"

carrying capacity 1. the number or weight of organisms of a given species and quality that can survive in, without causing deterioration of, a given ecosystem through the least favourable environmental conditions that occur within a stated interval of time; 2. the maximum stocking of possible on a given range or wildlife area without diminishing the forage crop in either amount or quality, or the value of related resources including soil, vegetation, watershed; 3. the maximum number of users that a recreation area can sustain without deterioration of the quality of the recreation experience or the resource (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1977, 1983; Republic of the Philippines 1982)

clone an individual or group of individuals reproduced asexually from a single organism, and therefore genetically identical to the parent/progenitor

community an integrated group of species inhabiting a given area and influencing one another's distribution, abundance, and evolution (World Resources Institute et al. 1992)

conservation management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations, and includes the preservations, maintenance, sustainable utilisation, restoration, and enhancement of the environment. Modern conservation theory incorporates the notion that what is to be conserved is not so much the physical state of an ecological system as the ecological processes by which that state is created and maintained (Australia, Resource Assessment Commission 1991). Conservation applies both to forests designated for harvesting and to forests designated as ecological reserves, although the management goals are different (Maini and Carlisle 1974)

conservation biology the discipline that treats the content of biodiversity, the natural processes that produce it, and the techniques used to sustain it in the face of human-caused environmental disturbance (Wilson 1992)

contaminate to make impure by contact or mixture with a foreign or objectionable substance; to foul, infect, poision, pollute

cultural diversity the variety and variability of human social structures, belief systems, and strategies for adapting to biological situations and changes in different parts of the world (World Resources Institute et al. 1992)

culture the sum of ways of living built up by a group of human beings, which is transmitted from one generation to another (Australia, Resource Assessment Commission 1991)

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deforestation clearing an area of forest on a non-temporary basis for another use. Clear cutting (even with stump removal), if shortly followd by reforestation for forestry purposes, is not deforesting (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983)

degradation the diminution of biological productivity or diversity (Sargent and Lowcock 1991). The reduction in grade, quality, yield, etc.

depletion the gradual reduction or destruction of the supply of natural resources, energy, money, products, etc.

development the advancement of management and use of natural resources to satisfy human needs and improve the quality of human life. For development to be sustainable it must take account of social and ecological factors, as well as economic ones, of the living and non-living resource base, and of the long-term and short-term advantages and disadvantages of alternative actions (International Uninons for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 1980) see sustainable development

domesticate to care for, to cultivate, or to tame a wild organism to serve human needs

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ecological balance a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in which genetic, species, and ecosystem divesity remain relatively stable, subjet to gradual changes through natural succession

ecological explosion an enormous increase in the numbers of a living organism. Examples include increases in numbers of an infectious virus like influenza, a bacterium like bubonic plague, a fungus like that of the potato disease, a green plant like the prickly pear cactus, or an animal like the grey squirrel (Elton 1957)

ecological (ecosystme) integrity the quality of a natural unmanaged or managed ecosystem in which the natural ecological processes are sustained, with genetic, species and ecosystem diversity assured for the future (Canadian Parks Service 1991)

ecology a branch of science concerned with the interrelationships of living organisms with each other and with their environment (McNeely 1990)

ecosystem originally, after A. G. Tansley(1935), any complex of living organisms with their environment, that "we isolate mentally for purposes of study". It includes all of the organisms living in a community, together with the physical environment in which they live (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983; Keystone Center 1991)

forest ecosystem an ecological system composed of interacting biotic and abiotic components of the environment in which trees are a major constituent, such that their canopies cover 20 % or more of the area (Maini 1991)

econsystem diversity see "biological diversity"

econsystem management the efforts of humans to select, plan, organize and implement programs designed to achieve specified goals on an ecosystem basis; activities can range from protective measures to ensure that nature remains uninterrupted to maintain diversity, install facilities, control populations, or eradicate exotics (McNeely et al. 1990)

endemic species see "species"

environment all of the biotic and abiotic components of a site surrounding and affecting the development of life (Empire Forestry Association 1953)

exotic species see "species"

extinct no longer existing

extinction the termination of a species caused by failure to reproduce and death of all remaining members of the species (McNeely et al. 1990)

extinction risk the risk of premature extinction may be defined in terms of the probability of extinction within a specific time period. It is based on the theory of extinction times for single populations and on meaningful time scales for conservation action. Three categories are defined on the basis of decreasing probabilities of extinction risk over increasing time periods:

critical speices 50 % probability of extinction within 5 years or 2 generations, whichever is longer

endangered species 20 % probability of extinction within 20 years or 10 generations, whichever is longer

vulnerable species 10 % probability of extinction within 100 years (Mace and Lande 1991)

extinction vortex the genetic and demographic processes that come into play when a population becomes small and isolated, and feed back on each other, to create what has been discribed as an extinction vortex. The genetic problems of inbreeding depression and lack of adaptability can cause a small population to become even samller - which in turn worsens the uncertainty of finding a mate and reproducing - leading to further decline in numbers and thus more inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity. The population spirals down toward extinction at an ever-accelerating pace (Gilpin and Soule 1986, Lace et al. 1992)

extirpation local extinction; a species or subspecies disappearing from a locality or region without becoming extinction throughout its range (McNeely et al. 1990)

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forest an ecosystem predominantly of trees and other woody vegetations, growing more or less closely together (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983); landscape dominated by trees and other woody vegetation with a canopy cover of 20 % or more (Maini 1991). Variants include:

buffer forest a forest that separates and serves as a transition zone between two areas managed for different purposes, e.g. a forest, acting as a buffer between a national park and an agricultural area, that is managed both to help protect park values and provide forest products needed by the rural community

farm forest/rural forest the trees, hedgerows, windbreaks, orchards, plantations, forests, agroforests, and associated organisms on farm and range lands

heritage forest a forest managed to harvest forest products and to sustain the natural system, including its bioproductivity, biotic and abiotic diversity. Modern technology, equipment and methods may be used to harvest, restocking, supplemented with artificial restocking of appropriate endemic species

natural forest a forest that has evolved and reproduced itself naturally from organisms previously established, and that has not been significantly altered by human activity. A natural forest may include, but is not equivalent to, an "old-growth forest"

old-growth forest a forest dominated by mature organisms that have originated naturally from those endemic to the forest or its surrounds, in which the genetic, species and structual diversity have not been significantly changed by human activity

permanent forest a forest that has been designated through land use policy to be kept permanently under forest cover, rather than open for conversion to other kinds of land use (Miani and Ullsten 1991)

traditional forest a forest that reproduces itself naturally and continually from endemic organisms previously established, and that is harvested by traditional methods according to long-established custom or practice, to serve limited local needs

urban forest the trees, forests, and associated organisms that grow near buildings and in gardens, green species, parks and golf courses located in village, town, suburban, and urban areas

forest cover all trees and other plants occupying the ground in a forest, i.e. including any ground cover (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983)

forest dwellers people that live in and rely on forest ecosystems to maintain their livelihood, social structure, cultural identity, and traditional knowledge, that must be safeguarded and respected (Maini 1991); the term may also embrace "people and other organisms" as forest dwellers

forest land land under natural or cultivated stands of trees intended for forest use, including land cleared of trees but which will be reforested. Permanent meadows and pastures with scattered trees and shrubs do not consitute forest land (Maini 1991)

forest management generally, the practical application of scientific, economic and social principles to the administration and working of a forest for specified objectives; more particularly, that branch of forestry concerned with the overall administrative, economic, legal, and social aspects, and with the essentially scientific and technical aspects, especially silviculture, protection and forest regulation (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983)

forestry generally, a profession embracing the science, business and art of creating, conserving, and managing forests and forest lands for the continuing use of their material and recreational resources; the science, the art and the practice of managing and using for long-term human benefit the natural resources that occur on and in association whth forest lands (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983)

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gene the functional unit of heredity; the part of deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) molecule that encodes a single enzyme or structural protein unit (World Resources Institute et al. 1992)

gene bank a facility established for the ex situ conservation of the reproductive tissues or cells of organisms, such as a seed bank or sperm bank (World Resources Institute et al. 1992)

gene pool all of the genes in a species, subspecies or interbreeding group of organisms

genetic diversity see "biological diversity"

genetic drift the random sampling of genes transmitted from one generation to the next tends to lose genetic variation, termed genetic drift. It occurs more rapidly in small populations than in larger populations (Lacy 1987)

global farm the global farm concept expands on the global village concept to focus attention on the interdependence between people, nations, and nature. The speed of information exchange now enables the world's people to manage, use, and share their biological heritage with each other. Joint stewardship to sustain the world's biological diversity and biological productivity, as the means to ensure intergenerational fairness for all species, recreates the world in the image of a global family farm. The global garden and the global forest are integral parts of the global farm (Aird 1989)

global village the new electronic interdependence recreates the world in the image of a global village. In the electric environment of information, transmitted at the speed of light, all events on this planet are simultaneous. There is no time or space separating events. We can now live, not just in one region or nation, but in many cultures and worlds simultaneously (McLuhan 1962, McLuhan and Forsdale 1988)

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habitat the natural environment in which an organism or population lives. Habitat may refer to all of the organisms and their physical environment in a particular place (Canada Department of Agriculture 1976, Keystone Center 1991)

heritage that which is or may be inherited by individuals or communities and passed on to successors

cultural heritage customs, traditions, literature, art, museum collections, historical buildings, trails, roads (Ontario Ministry of Culture and Communications 1990)

natural heritage land, water, air, rocks, fossils, plants, fungi, animals, microorganisms, habitats, ecosystems

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inbreeding depression where the mating of close relatives results in the loss of genetic variations (Baker 1989)

indicator species a plant, animal, or microbial species characteristic of, or that displays characteristic responses to, a specific site, habitat, ecosystem, or environmental condition

indigenous species see "species"

integrated resource management comprehensive management of two or more natural resources (water, soil, timber, pasture, wildlife, recreation, etc.) that integrates the values and interests of the global community when conceiving, designing and implementing policies, programs and projects to use and sustain these resources in perpetuity (Mitchell 1986, Peel 1991)

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merchantable those portions of a tree or crop which can be marketed under given economic conditions (Empire Forestry Association 1953)

monoculture the selection and culture by seeding, planting, or stand improvement of one species, variety, genetic strain or clone, often involving the suppression or exclusion of their organisms

multiple use two or more activities, such as hiking, hunting, or logging, occurring together on the same area either (a) intermixed, (b) confined to separate zones, or (c) in sequence

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niche the unique environment used to sustain the existence of an organism or species

old grown forest see "forest"

organism any living thing composed of one or more cells

park see "protected area"

pesticide a natural or manufactured product used to inhibit or kill pests considered harmful to the growth, development, or survival of other organisms; includes acaricide, arboricide, bactericide, biocide, fugicide, herbicide, insecticide, miticide, nematicide, piscide, viricide

plantation a stand of growing plants raised artificially, either by sowing or planting (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983)

pollute to contaminate land, water, air, plants, animals, or microorganisms with substances considered objectionable or harmful to the health of living organisms

population vulnerability (viability) analysis an analytical technique that estimates the minimum viable population of a species required to sustain its existence (Gilpin and Soule 1986)

preservation the action of reserving, protecting or safeguarding a portion of the natural environment from unnatural disturbance. It does not imply preserving an area in its present state, for natural events and natural ecological processes are expected to continue. Preservation is part of, and not opposed to, conservation

protected area an area protected by legislation, regulation or land-use policy to control human occupancy or activity. Following is a list of eight categories and management objectives for protected area (World Conservation Union et al. 1991):

anthropological reserve, natural biotic area to allow the way of life of societies living in harmony with the environment to continue undisturbed by modern technology. This category is appropriate where resource extraction by indigenous people is conducted in a traditional manner

managed nature reserve to ensure the natural conditions necessary to protect significant species, groups of species, biotic communities, or physical features of environment where these require specific human manipulation for their perpetuation. Controlled harvesting of some resources can be permitted.

multiple-use management area, managed resource area to provide for the sustained production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture, and tourism, with the conservation of nature primarily oriented to the support of the economic activities (although specific zones may also be designated within these areas to achieve specific conservation objectives)

national park to protect oustanding natural and scenic areas of national or international significance for scientific, educational, and recreational use. These are relatively large natural areas not materially alternatively human activity, where commercial extractive uses are not allowed

natural monument, natural landmark to protect and preserve significant natural features because of their special interest or unique characteristics. These are relatively small areas focused on protection of specific features

protected landscapes and seascapes to maintain significant natural landscapes and seascapes which are characteristic of the harmonius interaction of people, land and water while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism within the normal life-style and economic activity of these areas. These are mixed natural and cultural landscapes and seascapes of high scenic value where traditional land uses are maintained

resource reserve to protect the natural resources of the area for future use and prevent or contain development activities that could affect the resource pending the establishment of objectives which are based upon appropriate and planning. This is a "holding" category used until a permanent classification can be determined

strict nature reserve to protect nature and maintain natural processes in an undisturbed state in order to have ecologically representative examples of the natural environment available for scientific study, environmental monitoring, education, and for the maintenance of genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state

Two additional categories are international labels which overlay protected areas in the above eight categories:

biosphere reserve to conserve for present and future use the diversity and integrity of biotic communities of plants and animals within natural ecosystems, and to safeguard the genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution depends. These are internationally designated sites managed for research, education and training

world heritage site to protect the natural features for which the area is considered to be outstanding universal significance

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reforest to revegetate forest land or recently forested land with trees, by natural or artificial means

reforestation reestablishment of trees on forest land (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983)

regeneration, artificial renewal of a crop by direct seeding, or by planting seeding or cuttings (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983)

regeneration, natural renewal of a crop by natural seeding, sprouting, suckering, or layering (Society of American Foresters 1971, 1983)

reserve see "protected area"

reservoir, carbon an area where carbon has accumulated in appreciable amounts owing to past or present activity of a carbon sink (Hendrickson 1993)

resource something that is, or is potentially, useful to people or other organisms, such as food, fuel, property, forests, minerals, money

biological resource includes genetic resource, organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or value for humanity (UN Environment Programme 1992) or for other organisms

natural resource a renewable (forest, water, wildlife, soil, etc.) or non-renewable (oil, coal, iron ore, etc.) resource that is a natural asset(McNeely et al. 1990)

resource industry an industry based on the primary resources obtained from agriculture, fisheries, forestry or mining, including wheat, cod, pine timber, or iron ore

restoration the return of an ecosystem or habitat to its original community structure, natural complement of species, and natural functions (World Resources Institute et al. 1992)

rotation the cycle of regeneration, growth and harvest of a single crop (e.g. jack pine), or of an sequence of crops (e.g. corn, oats, clover); the use of different parts of an area in sequence (e.g. for hunting, grazing)

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sapling a loose term for a young tree no longer a seedling but not yet a pole, i.e. more than about 1 m high and about 2.5~10 cm in diameter (Society of American Foresters 1989)

silvics the study of the life history, requirements, and general characteristics of forest trees and stands in relation to the environment and the practice of silvicuture (Society of American Foresters 1989)

silviculture the theory and practice of controlling the establishment, composition, growth, and quality of the forest stands to achieve the objectives of management (Society of American Foresters 1989)

sink, carbon an area where the rate of carbon uptake by living organisms exceeds the rate of carbon release, so that carbon is actively sequestered in organic or inorganic forms (Hendrickson 1993)

species a singular or plural term for a population or series of populations of organisms that are capable of interbreeding freely with each other but not with members of other species (Keystone Center 1991)

endemic species a species originating in, or belonging to, a particular region. Both "endemic" and "indigenous" are the adjectives preferred over "native"

exotic species a species introduced accidentally or intentionally to a region beyond its natural range. "Exotic" is the adjective preferred over "alien", "foreign", and "non-native"

indigenous species see "species, endemic species"

subspecies a subdivision of a species; a population or series of populations occupying a discrete range and differing genetically from other subspecies of the same species (World Resources Institute et al. 1992)

species diversity see "biological diversity"

species richness the sum total of species within an area, without consideration of species distribution (Tho 1991)

stand a contiguous group of plants sufficiently uniform in age or size-class distribution, composition, structure, site quality, and/or location to be a distinguishable unit (Society of American Foresters 1989)

steward a person entrusted with the supervision and management of resources

stewardship the science, art and skill of responsible and accountable management of resources

stumpage the price charged for the right to harvest timber from publicly-owned or privately-owned forest land

succession changes in species composition in an ecosystem over time, often in a predictable order (Waring and Schlesinger 1985)

sustain to continue to supply the necessities of life; to keep alive; to maintain quality, quantity, productivity, biodiversity

sustainable development development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It implies meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to fulfil their aspirations for a better life. It is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, their renewability, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs (World Commission on Environment and Development 1987); see "sustained development"

sustainable forest development involves maintaining, without unacceptable impairment, the productive and renewal capacities, as well as the genetics, species and ecological diversity of forest ecosystems (Maini 1989)

sustainable forest management management regimes applied to forest land which maintain the productive and renewal capacities as well as the genetics, species and ecological diversity of forest ecosystems. Sustainable forest management is required to obtain sustainable forest development (Maini 1991)

sustainable growth "sustainable growth" is a contradiction in terms; nothing physical can grow indefinitely (World Conservation Union et al. 1991)

sustainable management managing the use, development, and protection of natural and physical resources in a way, or at a rate, which enables people and communities to provide for their social, economic, and cultural well-being and for their health and safety while (a) sustaining the potential of natural and physical resources (excluding minerals) to meet the reasonably foreseeable needs of future generations; and (b) safeguarding the life-supporting capacity of air, water, soil, and ecosystems; and (c) avoiding, remedying, or mitigating any adverse effects of activities on the environment (New Zealand Government 1991)

sustainable use use of an organism, ecosystem, or other renewable resources at a rate within its capacity for renewal (World Conservation Union et al. 1991)

sustained development development that continues, often with inadequate regard for social or ecological constraints; see "sustainable development"

sustained yield the quantity or amount that a crop or populaltion can produce continuously at a given intensity of management (Society of America Foresters 1971, 1983)

sustained-yield management implies management to achieve at the earliest practical time a balance between increment and harvest (Society of America Foresters 1971, 1983)

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taxonomic diversity a measurement of species diversity which takes into account the relatedness of species. For example, the land has many more species than the sea, but the species on land are more closely related to each other than the species in the ocean. Thus, the diversity of marine ecosystem is higher than a strict count of species would suggest (World Resources Institute et al. 1991)

tree a perennial woody plant with a well-defines stem or trunk which supports a crown of branches and leaves; comprises not only trees but also tall shrubs, bamboos, canes, etc. (Society of America Foresters 1971, 1983)

tree improvement a misnomer for tree selection, evaluation and breeding for more desirable characteristics, such as faster growth, drought, disease or insect resistance

urban forestry the cultivation and management of trees and forests for their present and potential contributions to the physiological, sociological and economic well-being of urban society (Jorgensen 1986)

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watershed the area drained by an underground or surface stream, or by a system of streams

wetland land that is seasonally or permanently covered by shallow water, or land where the water table is close to or at the surface. In either case, the presence of abundant water has caused the formation of hydric soils and has favoured the dominance of either hydrophytic or water-tolerant plants (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Ministry of Municipal Affairs 1991)

wilderness that part of our natural landscape which is sufficiently large and varied to constitute a more or less self-regulatory ecological unit, where human interferences with the land and associated natural communities of plants and animals is minimal, and where the beauty and the character of the landscape is such as to have aesthetic, cultural and scientific significance (Pimlott 1971)

wildlife nonhuman, nondomesticated, noncultivated organisms wild life all wild mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, invertebrates, plants, fungi, algae, bacteria, and other wild organisms (Ontario Wildlife Working Group 1991)

wildlife management the appreciation of scientific and technical principles to wildlife populations and habitats to maintain such populations (particularly mammals, birds and fish) essentially for recreational and/or scientific purposes. It includes the narrower concept of game management, where a further purpose may be semi-commercial, i.e. the controlled harvesting of wild game (Society of America Foresters 1971, 1983)

world conservation strategy a presentation of international, national and subnational strategies designed to achieve the three main objectives of living resource conservation (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 1980)

to maintain essential ecological and life-support systems (such as soil regeneration and protection, the recycling of nutrients, and the the cleansing of waters), on which human survival and development depend;

to preserve genetic diversity (the range of genetic material found in the world's organism), on which depend the functioning of many of the above processes and life-support systems, the breeding programmes necessary for the protection and improvement of cultivated plants, domesticated animals and microorganisms, as well as much scientific and medical advance, technical innovation, and the security of the many industries that use living resources;

to ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems (notably fish and other wildlife, forests and grazing lands), which support millions of rural communities as well as major industries

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