The existence of a chain of fortresses defending Egypt's western frontier against the Libyans in the time of Ramesses II was first proposed by Anthony De Cosson (1935:26, 121, 128, 148); he suggested that ruins at el-Gharbaniyat, Khasm el-Eish and Karm Abu-Girg might represent the remains of three of these fortifications. Jasper Brinton (1942:80) surveyed the material dating to the reign of Ramesses II at el-Alamein, el-Gharbaniyat and Karm Abu-Girg and reached a similar conclusion. With the discovery of the contemporary fortress at Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham in 1946 (Rowe 1948:4, 77), a further link was added to the proposed chain. Alan Rowe (1953, 1954) felt that he could identify a further four coastal sites that may have been part of the chain, these being Rhacotis (the forerunner to Alexandria), Kom el-Idris, el-Bordan and a site of unknown name some 5km east of el-Alamein. In addition to these "sea-coast forts", Rowe (ibid.) proposed that a further six sites ran approximately south-east from Rhacotis guarding the western Delta; as well as the previously identified Karm Abu-Girg, these were Ezbet Abu-Shawish, el-Kurum el-Tuwal, Kom el-Abqa'in, Kom Firin and Kom el-Hisn.
Few others have agreed with Rowe's identification of quite so many sites. In his review of the main evidence, Habachi (1980) opted only for Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham, el-Alamein and el-Gharbaniyat as probable fortresses and only tentatively notes that Ramesses II was active at Koms el-Abqa'in, Firin and el-Hisn. He believed that these defences were primarily directed against the so-called "Sea Peoples", who were marauding through the eastern Mediterranean in this period, rather than the Libyans.
Kenneth Kitchen (1982:71) concurred with Habachi for the most part, but added the sites of Kom Abu-Billo and el-Barnugi, both on the western edge of the Delta. He believed that the Ramesses II remains along the western Delta did not represent fortresses as such, but rather that they were existing settlements (shown by the pre-New Kingdom remains found there) fortified by Ramesses in response to the threat that resulted in the establishment of the coastal fortresses. He believed this to be primarily Libyan.
Most recently, Frank Yurco (1999:719) suggested a slight variation on the old ideas, this being that the coastal fortresses were intended as a defence against raids by the "Sea Peoples", whilst those of the western Delta guarded against the Libyans.
We'll now look at the evidence, both textual and archaeological, on which the various scholars have based their opinions. Does the evidence actually support the conclusions they have come to? Did a chain of defensive fortresses ever exist and, if so, which sites might have been part of it?