TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
Essentials of a Scientific Paper

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ABSTRACT
Abstracts and summaries – overviews of facts, results, conclusions and recommendations of an article.
Various definitions of abstract and summary – refer and study the target journal.

Abstracts:

Summary (either a conclusion or summary):
 
Executive summary


Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION
Tells reader what to expect from the article. Introduction and literature review usually integrated for journal; but kept separate in thesis.

In thesis, the literature review (Chapter II) has many subheadings and it is appropriate to change the name into formal title.

Introduction must be straightforward (e.g. Storage facilities have been identified as one of the key factors… Several investigators have explored… (list of references – must be arrange chronologically).

It should be “really introducing” (e.g. Penaga Lilin (Mesua ferrea) and Kelat Paya (Eugenia papillosa) are indigenous shade tree species that are potentially to be introduced in Malaysian urban parks).

The purpose of Introduction:

 
Subject
 
Purpose/Objective (the essential part of the article)
  • Tells why you are writing about this subject (the question is… why are you intend to study these subjects?!).
  • Deals with significance of the subject.
  • Enables reader to decide whether to read further (it must be very clear and simplify the objective in general form). Try to communicate to potential readers about the importance of our study.
    •  
    Scope
     
    Plan of development
     
    Theoretical or historical background


    Note : Nowadays, Introduction was kept brief due to (i) increasing cost of publication (proofreading, editing, etc.), (ii) proliferation of scientific literature), (iii) availability of review articles, books, etc., and (iv) study and follow preference of target journal.

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    LITERATURE REVIEW
    The literature review in a scientific paper is commonly part of the introduction. Many of the points given here also apply to literature used in the discussion.

    Serves to:


    Most journals insist on minimum number of citations necessary – avoid giving historical account.

    Distinguish between literature for Introduction and literature for Discussion.

    Paraphrase – don’t plagiarize or steal others’ work!!! (Paraphrase means to say in another way. The way to do it is to read the paper, close it down, write down the key words, then construct your own words. When done, compare it with the original so that it looks matching).

    Quotations – use if unavoidable, keep it to minimum. Do not use too often, so that your paper doesn’t look terrible).

    How much of the literature should be quoted or paraphrased? (it depends on your project undertaking, so you should decide which is the best for you).

    Use literature accurately by:


    Make sure that all facts are properly cited.

    Check that all citation is listed in the references and vice-versa.

    Check that all references are listed alphabetically.

    Within text, cite literature within/immediately after the first sentence.

    Style problems with unusual publications.

    Cite “serious” publications (e.g. journals and annals. Magazines are not considered as “serious” publications). The criteria in citing are (i) something that subjected to peer review, which is considered as “serious”, (ii) proceedings are not “serious” since not properly done, and (iii) if we don’t follow/cite “serious” publications, we are helping in propagating lie if we cite proceedings or any other non-serious publications continuously.

    Minimize citation of unpublished data, papers in press, abstracts, theses, personal communications.

    Tense for literature review (past tense or present tense or future tense):


    A literature review is usually a mixture of past and present tense.

    How to cite a literature?


    Cite recent and current (still applicable) publications :


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    MATERIALS AND METHODS
    Most readers skip this section of the paper. Yet it is important in that it allows fellow scientists to:


    It is the easiest and shortest part, plus consistency in producing the results.

    The Introduction is not very likely to be reviewed by researcher who are in related field, but he will look on your Materials and Methods to interpret your results!

    Section encompasses several or all of the following:


    Describe in chronological order if possible.

    Enough details must be given so that results are reproducible and can be properly evaluated.

    Refer (without providing details) to previously published method if:


    Advanced or unusual statistical procedures require literature citation.

    Use subheadings if they will improve clarity; repeat subheadings in Results.

    Usually described using passive voice, but watch out for dangling modifiers (e.g. "The farmers getting fertilized" or "I collected the data from 10 plots"!).

    Occasional use of active voice and first person acceptable and even encouraged.

    Tables can replace lengthy descriptions (e.g. to summarize)

    Avoid/minimize use of trade names (I don’t know why… but I think it might spark the brand/product war if we mention the trade names!).

    Get colleague to check (the reason is that you are so familiar with the Materials and Methods, and yet sometimes you will forget to mention something. For example, you have forgot to mentioned the experimental design!)

    Some points about scientific methodology:


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    RESULTS
    Simply, this is where you present your data.
    Results and Discussion? Keep separate (including in the thesis writing) unless:


    Don’t give results that are not accounted for in Materials and Methods (casual observation don’t belong to Results, such as raw data).

    Don’t include materials here, more suitable for Materials and Methods or Discussion (always ask yourself, does this part belongs to Materials and Methods, Results, or Discussion?)

    Begin with overview of what you have found out.

    Present summarized data in tables or graphs (don’t present raw data, and decide what is the best, either you will use graphs or tables. Summarized data means after we analyzed it using statistical analyses).

    In text, point out key data to:


    Don’t present all or many of the data shown in tables and graphs.

    Don’t try to interpret text, tables, graphs, and figures. Interpretation must be left to the Discussion.

    Make proper use of statistics:


    Accuracy must be appropriate, in terms of decimal points (1 or 2 decimal points, and avoid such a ridiculous precision!).

    Present results simply and clearly.

    Results often the shortest section of the report.
     

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    DISCUSSION
    This is where you tell what your results mean. The hardest section to write. You should write a good Discussion. If properly done, this section is an opportunity to highlight your achievements.

    For a good Discussion (adapted from Robert A. Day, How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper) you should:


    Speculation is allowed in a Discussion “… but it must be reasonable, firmly founded in observation, and subject to test… “ (F. P. Woodford,  Scientific Writing for Graduate Students).

    However, it is not allowed to make a wild speculation! The solution is to search for literature to support the discussion.
     

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    ESSENTIALS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER
    What do referees look out for?

    Title


    Abstract


    Introduction


    Materials and Methods


    Results


    Discussion
    Should include most or all of the following:


    References

    Note : It is important to write your references in a properly manner, so that the potential readers will know exactly the sources that you have cited. Most students (even a graduate student!) always tend to forget to write/cite their references properly. Sometimes, their theses writing are good, but when it comes to References, it looks terrible! So, remember to keep your reference materials in a safe place, thus enabling you to save time, money, and energy in producing it again and again…

    Overall Content and Presentation
    A paper could be rejected because:


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