Lesson
1: The Nature of a Sound Wave
Mechanical Wave
Longitudinal Wave
Pressure Wave
Lesson 2: Sound Properties and
Their Perception
Pitch and Frequency
Intensity/Decibel Scale
The Speed of Sound
The Human Ear
Lesson 3: Behavior of Sound
Waves
Interference and Beats
The Doppler Effect and Shock
Waves
Boundary Behavior
Reflection, Refraction, and
Diffraction
Lesson 4: Resonance and
Standing Waves
Natural Frequency
Forced Vibration
Standing Wave Patterns
Fundamental Frequency and
Harmonics
Lesson 5: Musical
Instruments
Resonance
Guitar Strings
Open-End Air Columns
Closed-End Air Columns
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Lesson 3: Behavior of Sound
Waves
The Doppler Effect and Shock
Waves
The Doppler effect is a phenomenon observed whenever
the source of waves is moving with respect to an
observer. The Doppler
effect can be described as the effect produced
by a moving source of waves in which there is an apparent
upward shift in frequency for the observer and the source
are approaching and an apparent downward shift in
frequency when the observer and the source is receding.
The Doppler effect can be observed to occur with all
types of waves - most notably water waves, sound waves,
and light waves. The application of this phenomenon to
water waves was discussed in detail in Unit
10 of The Physics Classroom; in this unit, we will
focus on the application of the Doppler effect to
sound.
We are most familiar with the Doppler
effect because of our experiences with sound waves.
Perhaps you recall an instance in which a police car or
emergency vehicle was traveling towards you on the
highway. As the car approached with its siren blasting,
the pitch of the siren sound (a
measure of the siren's frequency) was high; and then
suddenly after the car passed by, the pitch of the siren sound was low. That was the Doppler effect -
an apparent shift in frequency for a sound wave produced
by a moving source.
And perhaps you recall the laser disc
segment shown in class involving the approach of the snow
plow with its blaring horn. As the snow plow approach,
the sound of its horn was hear at a high pitch and as the
snow plow moved away, the sound of its horn was heard at
a low pitch. And finally, you might recall the nerf ball
demonstration performed in class. A nerf ball was
equipped with a buzzer which produced a sound with a
constant frequency. The ball was then through around the
room. As the ball approached you, you observed a higher
pitch than when the ball was at rest. And when the ball
was thrown away from you, you observed a lower pitch than
when it was at rest. These are all examples of the
Doppler effect. But why does it happen?
The Doppler effect is observed because
the distance between the source of sound and the observer
is changing. If the source and the observer are
approaching, then the distance is decreasing and if the
source and the observer are receding, then the distance
is increasing. The source of sound always emits the same
frequency. Therefore, for the same period of time, the
same number of waves must fit between the source and the
observer. if the distance is large, then the waves can be
spread apart; but if the distance is small, the waves
must be compressed into the smaller distance. For these
reasons, if the source is moving towards the observer,
the observer perceives sound waves reaching him or her at
a more frequent rate (high pitch); and if the source is
moving away from the observer, the observer perceives
sound waves reaching him or her at a less frequent rate
(low pitch). It is important to note that the effect does
not result because of an actual change in the
frequency of the source. The source puts out the same
frequency; the observer only perceives a different
frequency because of the relative motion between
them.
The
Doppler effect is observed whenever the speed of the
source is moving slower than the speed of the waves. But
if the source actually moves at the same speed as or
faster than the wave itself can move, a different
phenomenon is observed. If a moving source of sound moves
at the same speed as sound, then the source will always
be at the leading edge of the waves which it produces.
The diagram at the right depicts snapshots in time of a
variety of wavefronts produced by an aircraft which is
moving at the same speed as sound. The circular lines
represent compressional wavefronts of the sound waves.
Notice that these circles are bunched up at the
front of the aircraft. This phenomenon is known as a
shock wave. Shock
waves are also produced if the aircraft moves faster than
the speed of sound. If a moving source of sound moves
faster than sound, the source will always be ahead
of the waves which it produces. The diagram at the
right depicts snapshots in time of a variety of
wavefronts produced by an aircraft which is moving faster
than sound. Note that the circular compressional
wavefronts fall behind the faster moving aircraft (in
actuality, these circles would be spheres).
If you are standing on the ground when
a supersonic (faster than sound) aircraft passes
overhead, you might hear a sonic boom. A
sonic boom occurs as
the result of the piling up of compressional wavefronts
along the conical edge of the wave pattern. These
compressional wavefronts pile up and interfere to produce
a very high pressure zone. This is shown below. Instead
of these compressional regions (high pressure regions)
reaching you one at a time in consecutive fashion, they
all reach you at once. Since every compression is
followed by a rarefaction, the high pressure zone will be
immediately followed by a low pressure zone. This creates
a very loud noise.
If you are standing on the ground as
the supersonic aircraft passes by, there will be a short
time delay and then you will hear the boom - the
sonic boom. This boom is merely a loud noise resulting
from the high pressure sound followed by a low pressure
sound. Do not be mistaken into thinking that this boom
only happens the instant that the aircraft surpasses the
speed of sound and that it is the signature that the
aircraft just attained supersonic speed. Sonic booms are
observed when any aircraft which is traveling faster than
the speed of sound passes overhead. It is not a
sign that the aircraft just overcame the sound barrier,
but rather a sign that the aircraft is traveling faster
than sound.
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