The development of distant metastases is the major cause of death from most cancers. In order to predict and prevent tumour spreading, many attempts are being made to detect small numbers of tumour cells that have shed from the primary lesions and have moved to lymph nodes, blood or bone marrow ("disseminated tumor cells", or DTC). This chapter presents the advantages and limitations of techniques used for disseminated tumour cells (DTC) detection. DTC markers used in bladder, breast, cervical, colorectal, esophageal, gastric, head and neck, liver, lung, melanoma, ovarian, pancreatic, prostate, renal, and thyroid cancers are listed. The significance of DTC for prognosis and prediction of response to therapy is examined, with a specific focus on breast cancer. DTC viability and the notion of cell dormancy are also discussed.
markers used to detect DTC from various cancers by RT-PCR:
| OTHER NAMES | TYPE OF CANCER | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| AFP | Alpha-fetoprotein | Liver | |
| AGR2 | Anterior gradient homolog 2 (Xenopus laevis) | Secreted cement gland protein XAG-2 homolog (hAG-2) ; XAG-2 homolog long protein (HPC8); GOB-4 | Breast, colorectal, prostate |
| ANKRD30A | Ankyrin repeat domain 30A | Breast cancer antigen NY-BR-1; B726P | Breast |
| AR | Androgen receptor | Prostate | |
| B305D | Antigen B305D | B305D, isoform A (B305D-A) B305D, isoform C (B305D-C) | Breast |
| B4GALNT1 | Beta-1,4-N-acetyl-galactosaminyl transferase 1 | UDP-N-acetyl-alpha-D-galactosamine:(N-acetylneuraminyl)-galactosylglucosylceramide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase | Melanoma |
| CA9 | Carbonic anhydrase IX | Renal cell carcinoma associated antigen G250 | Kidney |
| CALCA | Calcitonin/calcitonin-related polypeptide, alpha | Thyroid | |
| CD44 | Antigen CD44 | Hermes antigen; PGP1 | Breast, head & neck |
| CDH1 | Cadherin-1 (epithelial) | E-cadherin; uvomorulin | Breast |
| CDH6 | Cadherin 6, type 2, K-cadherin (fetal kidney) | Kidney | |
| CEACAM5 | Carcino-embryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 5 | Carcino-embryonic antigen (CEA) | Breast, colorectal, esophagus, head & neck, lung, pancreas, stomach, thyroid |
| CEACAM7 | Carcino-embryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 7 | Carcinoembryonic antigen 2 (CGM2) | Colorectal |
| CGB | Chorionic gonadotropin, beta polypeptide | ß-human chorionic gonadotropin (ß-HCG) | Breast |
| CTSD | Cathepsin-D | Breast, kidney | |
| CXCR4 | Chemokine, CXC motif, receptor 4 | Neuropeptide Y receptor Y3 (NPY3R); lipopolysaccharide-associated protein 3 (LAP3); fusin | Breast |
| DCT | Dopachrome tautomerase | Tyrosinase-related-protein-2 (TYRP2); dopachrome delta-isomerase | Melanoma |
| DDC | Dopa decarboxylase (aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase) | Prostate, stomach | |
| EGFR | Epidermal growth factor receptor | Oncogene ERBB1; c-erbB-1 | Bladder, breast, cervix, colorectal, head & neck, lung, prostate |
| ERBB2 | V-erb-b2 erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 2, neuro/glioblastoma derived oncogene homolog (avian) (ERBB2) | c-erbB-2,; HER-2/neu | Breast |
| FABP1 | Fatty acid binding protein 1, liver | Liver fatty acid binding protein (L-FABP) | Breast, colorectal, prostate |
| FOLH1 | Folate hydrolase | Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) | Prostate |
| GABRP | Gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor pi (p) subunit | GABA receptor A, pi (p) polypeptide (GABARAP); GABA-A receptor, pi (p) polypeptide (GABA A(p)) | Breast |
| GALNT6 | UDP-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase 6 | ppGalNac-T(6); ß -1-4-N-acetylgalactosaminyl-transferase 6; GalNAc transferase 6; (GalNAcT6) | Breast |
| GRP | Gastrin-releasing peptide | Lung, thyroid | |
| KLK2 | Kallikrein-related peptidase 2 | Prostate | |
| KLK3 | Kallikrein-related peptidase 3 | Prostate specific antigen | Prostate |
| KLK6 | Kallikrein-related peptidase 6 | Protease M; neurosin | Colorectal, ovary |
| KRT7 | Keratin 7 | Cytokeratin 7 (CK7); sarcolectin (SCL) | Breast, esophagus, lung, ovary |
| KRT8 | Keratin 8 | Cytokeratin 8 (CK8) | Breast |
| KRT18 | Keratin 18 | Cytokeratin 18 (CK18) | Bladder, breast, esophagus |
| KRT19 | Keratin 19 | Cytokeratin 19 (CK19) | Bladder, breast, cervical, colorectal, esophagus, head & neck, lung, ovary, pancreas, stomach, thyroid |
| KRT20 | Keratin 20 | Cytokeratin 20 (CK20) | Bladder, breast, cervical, colorectal, esophagus, head & neck, lung, ovary, pancreas, stomach, thyroid |
| MAGE-A subtypes | Melanoma antigen family A subtypes | Mage | Breast, colorectal, melanoma, prostate |
| MAGEA1 | Melanoma antigen family A, 1 | Mage1 | Liver |
| MAGEA2 | Melanoma antigen family A, 2 | Mage2 | Lung |
| MAGEA3 | Melanoma antigen family A, 3 | Mage3 | Breast, liver, lung, melanoma |
| MAGEA4 | Melanoma antigen family A, 4 | Mage4 | Lung |
| MAGEA6 | Melanoma antigen family A, 6 | Mage6 | Lung |
| MAGEA12 | Melanoma antigen family A, 12 | Mage12 | Lung |
| MET | Protooncogene Met | Hepatocyte growth factor receptor (HGFR); renal cell carcinoma, papillary 2 (RCCP2) | Breast, stomach |
| MFI2 | Antigen p97 | Melanotransferrin | Melanoma |
| MITF | Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor | Melanoma | |
| MLANA | Melan-A | Melanoma antigen MART-1 | Melanoma |
| MUC1 | Mucin-1, transmembrane | Carcinoma antigen 15.3 (CA15.3);carcinoma antigen 27.29 (CA27.29); CD227 antigen; episialin; epithelial membrane antigen (EMA); polymorphic epithelial mucin (PEM); peanut-reactive urinary mucin (PUM); tumor-associated glycoprotein 12 (TAG12) | Breast, colorectal, lung, stomach |
| MUC2 | Mucin 2, oligomeric mucus/gel-forming | Breast, colorectal | |
| MUC5B | Mucin 5B, oligomeric mucus/gel-forming | Breast | |
| MUC7 | Mucin 7, secreted | Bladder, breast | |
| OR51E2 | Olfactory receptor, family 51, subfamily E, member 2 | Prostate-specific G protein-coupled receptor (PSGR) | Prostate |
| OSBP2 | Oxysterol binding protein 2 | Colorectal | |
| PAX3 | Paired box gene 3 | Melanoma | |
| PIP | Prolactin-induced protein | Gross cystic disease fluid protein (GCDFP-15) | Breast |
| PLAUR | Plasminogen activator receptor, urokinase-type | Urokinase receptor (uPAR); CD87 antigen | Breast |
| PSCA | Prostate stem cell antigen | Prostate, stomach | |
| PTHLH | Parathyroid hormone-like hormone | PTHrP (parathyroid hormone-related protein) | Breast, head & neck |
| S100A14 | S100 calcium binding protein A14 | Breast, colorectal, prostate | |
| S100A16 | S100 calcium binding protein A16 | S100F; aging-associated protein 13 (AAG13) | Breast, colorectal, prostate |
| SBEM | Small breast epithelial mucin | BS106; B511S | Breast |
| SCGB1D2 | Secretoglobin family 1D member 2 | (Prostatein-like) Lipophilin B (LPB, LPHB); antigen BU101 | Breast |
| SCGB2A1 | Secretoglobin family 2A, member 1 | Mammaglobin 2 (MGB2); mammaglobin B (MGBB); lacryglobin (LGB); lipophilin C (LPC, LPHC) | Breast |
| SCGB2A2 | Secretoglobin family 2A, member 2 | Mammaglobin (MGB); mammaglobin 1 (MGB1); mammaglobin A (MGBA) | Breast |
| SERPINB3 | Serine (or cysteine) proteinase inhibitor, clade B (ovalbumin), member 3 | Squamous cell carcinoma antigen 1 (SCCA1) | Esophagus, head & neck |
| SERPINB4 | Serine (or cysteine) proteinase inhibitor, clade B (ovalbumin), member 4 | Squamous cell carcinoma antigen 2 (SCCA2) | Esophagus, head & neck |
| SERPINB5 | Serine (or cysteine) proteinase inhibitor, clade B (ovalbumin), member 5 | Mammary serine protease inhibitor (Maspin) | Breast |
| SILV | Silver homolog (mouse) | 95 kD melanocyte-specific secreted glycoprotein; Pmel17; Gp100 | Melanoma |
| SPDEF | SAM pointed domain containing ets transcription factor | Prostate epithelium-specific Ets transcription factor (PDEF) | Breast |
| TACSTD1 | Tumor-associated calcium signal transducer 1 | Colorectal carcinoma antigen CO17-1A; epithelial glycoprotein 2 (EGP2); epithelial glycoprotein 40kD (EGP40); epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM); epithelial-specific antigen (ESA); gastrointestinal tumour associated antigen 733-2 (GA733-2); KS1/4 antigen; KSA antigen; membrane component, chromosome 4, surface marker 1 (M4S1); MK-1 antigen; MIC18 antigen; TROP-1 antigen | Breast, colorectal, esophagus, lung |
| TERT | Telomerase reverse transcriptase | Telomerase catalytic subunit | Breast, colorectal, liver, melanoma, stomach, thyroid |
| TFF1 | Trefoil factor 1 | Breast cancer estrogen-inducible sequence (BCEI); gastrointestinal trefoil protein (GTF);pS2 protein | Breast |
| TFF3 | Trefoil factor 3 | Intestinal trefoil factor (ITF);p1.B | Breast, colorectal |
| TG | Thyroglobulin | Thyroid | |
| TPO | Thyroid peroxidase | Thyroid | |
| TSHR | Thyroid stimulating hormone receptor | Thyroid | |
| TSPAN8 | Tetraspanin 8 | Transmembrane 4 superfamily member 3 (TM4SF3); CO-029 | Colorectal |
| TYR | Tyrosinase | Oculocutaneous albinism IA | Melanoma |
| TYRP1 | Tyrosinase-related protein 1 | Melanoma antigen gp75 | Melanoma |
| UCHL1 | Ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal esterase L1 | Ubiquitin thiolesterase; protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5) | Lung |
| UPK1A | Uroplakin 1A | Bladder | |
| UPK1B | Uroplakin 1B | Bladder | |
| UPK2 | Uroplakin 2 | Bladder | |
| UPK3 | Uroplakin 3 | Bladder | |
| VIL1 | Villin 1 | Colorectal |
