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CHAPTER 5:
JAPANESE PHILOSOPHY & ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE RESEARCH.
"The basic Japanese life-attitude, reflected in their myth and their history, is one which finds no dualism between spirituality and materiality. All things, including the human appetites, are divine gifts. The enjoyment of them is natural." (Ross, 1965, p. 114)
Sheridan Tatsuno reported that "In 1976 the top four recipients of US. patents were General Electric, the US. navy, Bayer, and Xerox. By 1987 three of the top four were Japanese companies - Canon Hitachi, and Toshiba" (1990, p.3). Since the second world war, Japan embarked on a path towards technological progress.
The duality of materiality and the spiritual is almost infallible in Western thought, whereas the Japanese are confident that they can develop new technologies that will involve the "Spiritual wellbeing" of humankind. This projection, to Japanese thought, is a rational and logical progression, which can be traced to the Philosophical influences of their indigenous religion, Shinto and Buddhism, which are free from Western binary restrictions of Western thought whilst proposing an alternative rationality against the scientific rationality of the West. Reasons for Japanese technological success are infinite. Theorists have looked into Japanese management practices, language theories, cultural influences and religious practices for answers to their economic success. Eastern philosophies seemed antithetical to fundamental philosophies of the West. We shall now explore generally, some Japanese philosophies, and hypothesize their relevance to Japan's positivism in their technological future.
Subject/object binary is not used in the Japanese language, as it is concerned with projecting the user's experience "in its immediate unanalyzed form". (Kishimoto, 1967, p. 110) The Japanese sentence generally omits the subject, because philosophically, the Japanese sees the "individual as always existing in a network of human relationships." (Nakamura, 1967, p. 182). The particles in postmodernist theories, and the individualistic, digital representations of Western thought differs from the Japanese in this instance because the Japanese always views the particle components to exist in a structural balance relative to other components in the structural whole. Deleuze and Guattari's One Multiple principle is based loosely on the Japanese principle of the collective whole.
The Japanese concept of interconnectivity is central to the notion of the integrated multimedia system. Current multimedia systems in the market focuses on the interconnectivity of hardware. Japanese philosophy hints at further levels of interconnection, such as those between human-machine, "mind-machine" and biology-machine.
Japanese cultural history has never much progressed in formal logic or abstract systems, but are bounded by realism, hence Kishimoto (1967, p. 112) suggested that the Japanese be called "empirical idealists", distinct from the conceptual idealism of the West. Kishimoto noted that Japanese language does not have a rich vocabulary of words "denoting intellectual, inferential process of active thought"(1967, p. 113), It is tempting to infer that because of their lack of formality or history of logic systems Japan, could never have created the digital computer, as we know it. The fact is that Babbage and Turing got around to it before Japan needed to prove their technological inventiveness. On the other hand, there is no denying that the lack of a formal tradition, may seemed to be crippling in Japan's foray into digital technology, but it is reversed by the Westernization of Japanese society. Japan's technological growth is paralleled by their Westernization process.
Shinto (Ross 1965), Japan's indigenous and State religion is concerned predominantly with Nature mysticism, hence its practice is not concerned with the rational. The earth is a communal world in which the material interacts with the spiritual (unseen) . The group orientation of Shinto is extremely strong and is placed above the individual.. The interactivity of the physical with the spiritual in Shinto removes the paradox of Cartesian dualism. Hence the problems of Western religious ethics on the development of a mechanical "consciousness" in AI research is nonexistent in Japanese philosophy. Everyone and everything can be spiritual as long as they are processed (cleansed and purified) correctly. The Universality of spirituality, similar to the concept of the universality of energy as the central flow that circulates throughout the universe, suggests a preoccupation with a unique form of monism - a singular principle, as standard.
TRON, Fifth Generation Computers, MiniDiscs, DCC, DAT, and many other new Japanese technologies, are developed with the hope of setting a new standard in the global consumption of digital technology, similar to the introduction of VHS and Betamax videos in the late 1970s. This is contrasted with current technological developments in the West, where they have learnt the importance of adaptability of technology, and are releasing digital machines (such as Silicon Graphics' Indigo series) that are not only multi-functional, but are multi-system, allowing for inter-platform access and compatibility such as the ability to move from DOS machines to the MacIntosh and the Amiga systems.
Shinto does not have ethical codes like Western religions, but follow what is termed "situational ethics" (Ross, 1965, p.108). Makato, as it is known in Japanese, is the way in which followers of this principle is being "true" to his/her situation, by the way of living harmoniously with the demands of his/her immediate environment. This philosophy parallels very closely to biological systems in the West such as the self organizational "autopoietic" systems proposed by Maturana and Verela (1980), and current trends in machine learning via the neural network models that are more social by being environmentally sensitive. "Autopoiesis" reflects that need for any intelligent body to be able to reorganize itself within a structural framework according to external demands. This is the fundamental principle of discourse where language and knowledge are continually redefined during communication. Distraction from this moral consciousness results in contamination, the "moral evil". The concept of moral evil is not bound by a universal law or principle, but varies according to the dynamics of motive, time, place, context, relationship, volition and all other factors related to that person's presence at a particular time and his/her interpersonal environmental conditions. Hence, there is no concern for a permanent world order, or fixed universal principle. Such a dynamic system will be very much supported by computer-users, as it allows for a parallel evolution between humans and their personalized computer system whilst ensuring maximum interface. Yukawa (1967, p. 54), a theoretical physicist, noted that "the Western mode of human living is characterized, in a broad sense, by confrontation with external environments, whereas the Eastern mode is characterized by adaptation to them." The open-endedness of Shinto drives its followers to be conscious of the pluralities of their environment and to work with those irrationalities as inevitable parts of "The Way" of the world. This can be found in the ease of application and utility in machines designed by Japanese technologists. Such development of empirical sensitivity may provide a good lead for the development of AI technology in Japan.
As there are no scriptures, Shinto practice is taught empirically. From the early days, the Japanese viewed learning as a process of cultivation involving the collaboration of society to provide a fertile environment for learning. The process of learning for an individual is one of "empirical tuning". Such empirical learning practised by the Japanese goes against Chomsky's notion of the universal language structure (1974). Japanese philosophy suggests that the language rules are not fixed within individuals, but are translated and adopted according to the processing of information as knowledge during communication. This move is reflected by the Japanese adoption of neural network techniques of computing for their fifth generation research.
Having no absolutes , the notion of relativity is crucial to Shinto beliefs. This notion of relativity is further enhanced in a more systematic way by Buddhism, which I will discuss later in this chapter. The notion of relativity prevents Japanese thought from the pitfalls suffered by traditional Western philosophies that believed in the objective "truths" of scientific knowledge. "Truth" in Japanese philosophy depends on the harmony between Subjects and their environments. The attention given to the purity of feelings and emotions over that of the "thing-through-tone" of an individual in Shinto shows a marked distinction between early Japanese and Western philosophies. Hence, the Japanese excel in applied Science, i.e. Technology, whilst the West are generally better theorists, which explains why the West are so frustrated over the Japanese appropriation and adaptation of their technology, with the imitators often beating the innovators at their own game.
The concept of purity is at the heart of Shintoism. Purification rituals lie at the heart of Japanese festivities, and the concept is central to the Japanese psyche. All process of creativity is seen as a process of purification. Truth is achieved when the contamination or cloudedness of a task is purified through the creative process to expose the essence of the product. The apparent purity of digital information, together the ability of the digital medium to sustain the quality of information is very attractive to the Japanese.
Buddhism introduced their own concept of rationality to the Japanese, which filled the void opened up by the generality of Shintoism. The "Middle Way" preached by Nagarjuna (150-250) is the "practical principle of synthesis" (Miyamoto, 1967, p.62), which called for a balanced view of the whole which is very much in line with the Shinto notion of "empirical truth". The "Middle Path" is the place whereby "the distinction of subject and object is abolished and the mind realizes the truth of non-duality" (Hanayama, 1967, p. 34).
"...the Eastern mind basically tends to be advaitist. Advaitism is not the same as monism; it simply asserts that reality is non-dualistic (advaya). Monism limits, whereas advaitism leaves the question open, and refuses to make any definite statement about reality. it is not-to, which is not the same as one. it is both yes and no, yet it is neither the one nor the other." (Miyamoto, 1967, p. 63)
Advaitism is similar to the concept of the real infinite explored by Le Blanc (1993), as the place of infinite possibilities and opportunities, where real interaction of these possibilities create the meaning of life. Postmodernism also supports Japanese advaitism, in the rejection of dualism, and now with the multi-functional digital computer, the relationship between humans and computers are studied atomically.
The Kegon doctrine made a distinction between reality and reason. Reality is made up of pluralities (ji), whilst reason/logic (ri) is its postulate and in no way is it a part of the real experience. Hence, the Kegon doctrine point away from the real of logic for the understanding of the human sciences, and perhaps, AI research, but towards the plurality of reality and its synthesis. While Western logic is bounded by the precision of the linear Cartesian logic, Japanese reasoning, taking into account the Buddhist plurality of reality, tends to be "fuzzy", i.e., cyclical, relative and open-ended. (Tatsuno, 1990, pp. 21-22). Hence, the development of fuzzy logic systems for the Japanese fifth generation electronics.
The koan is a rationally unsolvable riddle found in Zen philosophy which is used as a tool for spiritual enlightenment and intuitive understanding (Tatsuno, 1990, p. 45). The absence of logical reasoning in Zen also played a major role in shaping the Japanese psyche towards the tasks of synthesis and holistic thinking, and a penchant for simplicity, quiet and visual design.
One of the biggest influence of Buddhist and Shinto thoughts in Japan, is the acceptance of multiplicities. The Japanese excel at adapting multiple theories and structures to form what is known as "Multi-functional Creativity" (Tatsuno, 1990, p. 22). Ideas are fused into a cyclical wheel of creative process and is constantly recycled and adapted for other purposes, without losing its value. Tatsuno quoted Sueo Matsubara of the Mukta Institute's definition of the wheel of creativity (Mandala) as such;
"Creativity is not a one-dimensional circle. Like reincarnation, it is an unending process of refinement and recycling. The mandala of creativity is really three-dimensional. Each time you go around, the idea should get better and better. Otherwise, you're only going around in circles and going nowhere "
(Tatsuno, 1990, p. 53)
Buddhism and Shintoism also share common ideas about the process of creativity. Buddhism 's views of creativity as a cultivation process (ikusei) is very similar to that of Shinto, which looked at the creative process as a process of purification. The Japanese believe that if they toil hard enough with the right intention, the problem of "latencies:, of "unintentional volition" posed by Zoe Sofia (1992, p. 27). "Unintentional volitions" are the result of inadequate balance or purity of thought within the creative process. Sofia may argue that the Japanese can only guarantee the "Middle Path" only for the present, as a result of the Japanese interest only for their immediate experience. This highlights a big problem with the Japanese experience in their present drive towards globalisation. The "Middle Path" or essence of "truth" in Japanese activity can only be obtained if there is a consensual agreement within the community to maintain the balance. This can be achieved in a society with common goals, as in the homogeneous environment of Japan itself, and also, in similar cultures in Asia, where the people share similar goals and ideals with the Japanese. The problem for the Japanese is when they deal with the paradoxical nature of the West. The political and social liberalism of the West is limited by the dichotomies of dualism. Hence, the irrational juxtaposition of pluralities by the Japanese in the West is seen to be mad, and vehemently rejected by the people. The absolute decisions adopted by Westerners in their creative process, pitching one concept in favour of another, is seen by the Japanese to be "morally evil".
Japanese philosophies do indeed reflect current trends in postulating the role of digital computer technology, and human cognitive theories. With such a tradition behind them, coupled, with their Westernization, Japanese technologists have indeed got an upper hand in the technological race with the USA. The biggest obstacle is that computer technology is a Western construct. The Fifth Generation Computers uses PROLOG, which is a declarative language developed specifically by Western engineers to represent in English language. To fully utilize their philosophical traditions, Japanese technologists have to start with a clean slate - to reconstruct the formal structures that represent their concepts at base level. Projects like TRON will only work globally if the problems of translation is either avoided or solved. The other problem is the cultural shift in Japan as a result of modernization. The Westernization of Japan may have swung too far for their own good, resulting in the abandonment of their rich cultural tradition in their technological research and development.
Chapter 1: Attention for Sale: Capitalism and Interactive Computers Chapter 2: Defining Human-Computer Interaction Chapter 3: Representing our Worlds: Digital Translation Chapter 4: Digital Intelligence: Parallel flow of Multiples? Chapter 5: Japanese Philosophy & Artificial Intelligence Research Soundwaves Conclusion Appendix A, B, C, D, E, F, G Bibliography
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