| ROPEMANSHIP
INTRODUCTION
Ropes
are used in the mountains for varied occasions. They are used
from rescue or emergency situations to drying your wet clothes
as a clothesline. When going out into the wilderness, bring
the lightest and strongest rope you can carry. It can really
make a difference when you encounter emergency situations.
ROPES
AND KNOTS
Types
of Rope
Following
are types of ropes used in mountaineering or backpacking work.
They are described by their characteristics as well as to
their general usage.
Weaves
The
most popular weaves are three-strand, twisted, and braided
or sheathed. Twisted rope strands unravel when heated and
are therefore difficult to flame-whip when cut. They are whipped
with waxed string, plastic whipping compound, or heat shrunk
plastic tubing.
SYNTHETIC
FIBER ROPES
Nylon:
is the most popular rope fiber used. Aside from being strong,
it is lightweight, does not rot and is shock absorbent.
Braided:
or sheathed rope, as it is commonly called in the
US is actually two ropes, one inside the other. It is very
pliable and resists twists and kinks when coiling. These ropes
flame-whips easily and it is resistant to abrasion because
of its outer casing. One downside of this type of rope is
that you cannot see the damage inside the core, hence makes
it unreliable for long hauls.
Polyethylene:
This type of rope is inexpensive, slippery, slightly elastic,
unaffected by water, available in many colors, and it floats.
Polypropylene:
Polypropylene is similar to polyethylene but less slippery
and more elastic (a better rope).
Polyester:
Yes, polyester is also used for ropes aside from the clothes
you are wearing. One brand is Dacron and it is used for sailboat
sheet and mooring lines and every place you need a rope that
is dimensionally stable and resistant to ultraviolet light.
Kevlar:
The Dupont Co. developed a gold-colored synthetic fiber. It
is used as a tire cord fiber for bullet-resistant vests and
as fabrication material for ultra-light canoes and kayaks.
Kevlar rope is very light (specific gravity is 1.44); it is
about four times as strong as steel of the same diameter,
and so expensive that it is recommended only for applications
where extreme strength, light weight, low elongation and non-corrosion
are major concerns. Kevlar rope is difficult to cut, even
with the sharpest tools.
NATURAL
FIBER ROPES
Except
for cotton, which is still used for sash cords and clothesline,
natural fiber ropes like manila, sisal, hemp, and jute are
almost obsolete. These natural fiber ropes have a nice hand;
they coil well and hold knots tenaciously. Natural fiber ropes
rot easily and for their weight, they are not very strong.
For example, the tensile strength in pounds of new manila
rope is roughly 8,000 times the square of its diameter in
inches. Thus, new three-eighths inch manila will theoretically
hold about 0.375 x 0.375 x 8,000 = 1125 pounds (the Cordage
Institute figure is 1220) – hardly a match for the modern
synthetics in Table 2.
PREPARING
A NEW ROPE
A
rope may last for decades if it is well maintained. An ill-kept
one will not survive a season. When you buy a rope, make sure
that you seal the ends. This procedure is called "whipping."
This is done to make sure that the rope will not unravel and
waste a perfectly good rope.
Here
is one procedure for whipping a rope. First flame one-half
inch back of the end. Cut the cooled flamed section and then
re-flame the cut end.
Following
are other procedures for whipping:
Flame
whipping
Almost
all synthetic ropes flame-whips easily since most of them
are made of plastic material. You just need a cigarette lighter
or a small propane blow-torch. Braided (sheathed) ropes, which
includes parachute cord, should be seared around the diameter
of the cord, just at the back ends, then cut square through
the (cooled) flamed section with a sharp blade. For a neat,
trim look, finish by lightly flaming the cut end, as illustrated
in figure 2. This two-step procedure will prevent the ends
from cauliflowering when heat is applied.
Twisted
rope tends to unravel when heat or flame is applied. To get
around this, wrap the ends firmly with tape, then sear the
area behind the tape, along the diameter of the rope. After
cooling, remove the tape, cut the ends square through the
flamed section, and re-flame the end as illustrated in figure
3. The length of your whipping should equal the diameter of
the rope.
- Tape
the end
- Flame
behind the tape
- Cut
through flamed area
- Re-flame
end
String
whipping
This
procedure is more time consuming but is more reliable than
flame whipping. The "simple whip" illustrated in Figure 4
is adequate for most ropes. Shoemaker’s waxed thread or heavy
button/carpet thread (dental floss works great) are the best
one to use. When string whipping be sure to wind against the
lay of the rope, towards the end.
Plastic
whipping
This
procedure requires you to dip the rope end into "liquid plastic
rope whipping" compound. Allow it to dry and for a neater
look, apply heat-shrunk plastic sleeves to the rope ends.
These products come in a variety of colors and are available
at most marinas.
COILING
YOUR ROPE FOR PROPER STORAGE
Old
Navy Method
- Coil
the rope: take care to lay each coil carefully into place,
twisting it a half turn so it will lay without twisting.
Then, grasp the main body of the rope with one hand and
place your thumb through the eye of the coils to hold them
in place as shown in Figure 5, Step 1.
- Remove
the last two coils of rope; take this long free end and
wind it around the main body of the rope several times (figure
5, step 2). Wind the free end downward, toward the hand
holding the rope body. Wind evenly and snugly. Do not make
the coils too tight.
- Form
a loop with the free end of the rope as shown in step 3,
and push it through the eye of the rope body.
- Grasp
the wound coils with one hand and the rope body with the
other hand and slide the coils upward tightly against the
loop. The rope is now coiled and secured (step 4). Pulling
the free end of the rope will release the line, which can
quickly be made ready for throwing.
Sailor’s
Stowing Coil
This
method does not look as neat, but it better preserves the
integrity of the coils (they’re less likely to snag when the
rope is tossed out):
Procedure:
Coil the rope and double the last few feet to form a long
loop. Wind the loop around the coil and secure with a pair
of half hitches as illustrated. Hang your rope from the loop
at top.
HOW
TO MAINTAIN YOUR ROPES
Please
keep in mind the following guidelines in maintaining your
ropes.
- Pad
your ropes at potential abrasion points. Abrasion will cause
your ropes to be frayed hence decrease their strength and
eventually their usage.
- Keep
your ropes clean. Dirt and grime can get into the rope and
cause internal abrasions as well as external. Always use
a separate protective pack or bag to transportation and
storage. Wash your ropes with cold water using mild, non-detergent
soap. You can use fabric softeners as this can improve the
flexibility of the fibers. Never bleach your ropes. Always
air-dry your ropes and never to direct sunlight. Also never
dry them in a drier or under a hot blower.
- When
storing your ropes make sure that it is in a cool dark place,
away from ultraviolet light like sunlight. Store them away
from chemicals like acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents and
bleaching compounds. These include battery acid, salt, oil
and or gasoline, kerosene and the like. Synthetic ropes
are not much affected by these chemicals, but remember that
these chemicals, even water, can attract dirt, which can
cause the rope to wear quickly.
- Never
step on a rope. This will greatly increase the risk of wear
to your rope. Stepping on it can send dirt into the rope
and eventually causing added abrasion inside the rope.
- Be
sure to inspect your rope before and after every use. Make
sure that you know the history of the rope as where and
what it has gone through. From this you can gauge whether
or not to retire the rope.
Tip:
To remove the "memory" of store-bought coils, slightly stretch
a new rope (tie it off tight between two trees) for an hour
or two. An old snagged rope may forget its windings if you
soak it briefly in water then administer the stretch treatment.
All
ropes – natural and synthetic – are injured to some extent
by ultraviolet light. So keep your ropes out of the sun as
much as possible.
KNOTS
Left-handed
knots are indicated by the LH symbol and appear on the
left side of the text or in a special box adjacent to
the right-hand knot versions. To save space, the knots, judged
by the author as "universal," are illustrated in right-hand
form only.
How
Strong Are Knots?
As
a general rule, knots reduce rope strength by about 50 percent.
Table 3 indicates the approximate breaking strength of some
popular knots. Note that splices (which really aren’t knots
at all) detract barely, if at all, from a rope’s breaking
strength – the reason why they are the preferred way to join
lines.
APPROXIMATE
BREAKING STRENGTH IN PERCENT OF SOME COMMON KNOTS*
Anchor
(fisherman’s) bend: 70
Bowline:
60
Bowline
on a bight: 60
Clove
hitch: 75
Figure
eight (end) knot: 48
Monofilament
fishing knot (clinch knot): 80
Single
overhand knot (half a "granny"): 45
Two
half hitches: 75
Sheepshank:
45
Square
(reef) knot: 45
Timber
hitch: 70
Eye
splice: 95
*Figures
are derived from: Plymouth Cordage, 1946, and from tests by
Scovell, Miller, Dent, Trumpler, and Day, as reported in The
Art of Knotting and Splicing, by Cyrus Lawrence Day, 1970;
and Ropework, Practical Knots Hitches and Splices, by J. Grant
Dent, University of Minnesota Agricultural Extension Service,
U.S.D.A. 1964.
*ANCHOR
(FISHERMAN’S) BEND:
With
a breaking strength of approximately 70 percent, the Anchor
Bend is one of the strongest knots known. It won’t slip or
jam and it can be easily untied. The hitch was originally
used to tie the anchor ring on sailing vessels – testimony
to its reliability. Probably the best hitch to use for mooring
small boats, the anchor bend also works great for securing
lures to monofilament fishing line. Its one drawback is that
it is difficult to make in large diameter rope. Belt-and-suspenders
folk sometimes complete the bend with a bowline on the standing
part.
*These
are the most useful knots – the ones you’ll want to master
first.
*BOWLINE:
The
bowline is one of the oldest and most useful knots. Captain
John Smith (1627) considered it one of the three most important
knots aboard ship – the other two being the sheepshank and
the wall knot (a crown-like end knot, which is infrequently
used today).
The
bowline is a very secure knot, which won’t slip, regardless
of the load applied. It is commonly used by mountain climbers
to tie their climbing ropes around their waists. Use this
knot whenever you want to put a non-slip loop on the end of
a line.
Beginners
are often told to make the bowline by forming a loop, or "rabbit
hole." The rabbit (bitter or free end of the rope) comes up
through the hole, around the tree (standing part of the rope)
and back down the hole. The bowline will slip a few inches
before it tightens, so allow an extra-long free end.
- Belt
and suspenders people will apply two tight half hitches
LOCKING
BOWLINE:
For
complete security, especially in slippery plastic ropes, complete
the bowline with two half-hitches, as illustrated. This "improved
bowline" is sometimes called the locking bowline. Page
30 shows how to tie a basic "half-hitch."
*BUTTERFLY
NOOSE: (Right-hand only)
Mountain
climbers use the butterfly noose to attach carabiners
or whenever they need a non-slip loop in the middle of a rope.
Butterfly loops are secure and will accommodate a load in
any direction. They can be spaced along a line to provide
purchase points for a winch line – essential in canoe rescue
work. Need to pull a long rope tight? Evenly spaced "butterfly
nooses" will give each person a secure handhold. The knot
is also handy for fastening gut leaders to monofilament fishing
line.
Like
the bowline, the butterfly noose will not jam, regardless
of load direction. Also called the "lineman’s loop," this
knot was once popular with telephone line men.
BOWLINE
ON A BIGHT:
Use
this whenever you need to make a two-legged "bosun’s chair"
for rescue work, or when you need a non-slip loop in the middle
of a rope when both ends are inaccessible.
The
bowline on a bight differs from the conventional
bowline in that the loop in the center of the "rabbit" (see
description of bowline on page 17) is passed over the
doubled loop which is hanging below then forced up behind
the standing part of the rope. Hold the rope firmly with your
left hand as you pull down with your right to tighten the
knot.
CAT’S
PAW: (Right-hand only)
Here’s
a slick way to attach a rope to a hook or the towing link
of a vehicle. The cat’s paw is secure under heavy load,
yet it comes apart easily – the reason why it remains popular
with longshoremen and movers. Form two loops at the end of
your rope, twist them around several times, and hook them
in place. That’s all there is to it.
*CLOVE
HITCH:
A
popular knot for mooring boats to piers and pilings, and to
secure ratlines to the shrouds on sailboats, the clove
hitch is also a common "starter" knot for lashings and
the diamond hitch. When absolute security is needed, finish
the knot with one or two half- hitches, as illustrated in
figure 7c.
DIAMOND
HITCH: (Right-hand only)
For
centuries, this classic hitch has been used by prospectors,
fur traders and trappers to secure gear on pack animals. Use
the diamond hitch to tie a load onto a car top or trailer:
all you need is one long rope. The real value of the diamond
hitch is that strain on one part of the rope is taken up elsewhere
in the hitch, which causes the line to tighten. The "six-point"
diamond suspension provides security even when the load shifts.
To
apply a diamond hitch to a pack frame, begin by tying a rope
end at point "a", using a clove hitch (see page 23).
Then, loop the line around "b" and "c", as illustrated. Next,
twist the horizontal center strands a couple times and feed
the bitter (free) end of the rope through, looping it over
the frame points in the order illustrated. When the hitch
is complete, pull the rope to tighten the hitch, then tie
it off where you started it, with two half hitches. Note:
when tying to a pack animal, the hitch usually originates
and ends at the ring in the girth strap, and the "diamond"
in the center appears much larger than illustrated.
FIGURE
EIGHT (END) KNOT:
Use
this beautifully symmetrical knot as a "stopper" knot on the
end of a rope. It functions like an overhand knot, but with
more bulk. The knot also makes a convenient slip-noose for
tying packages. When used in this manner it is called the
"packer’s" or "parcel" knot.
FIGURE
8 LOOP:
The
figure 8 loop is a sort of shlocky bowline. It’s easy
to make and it holds securely, even in slippery, synthetic
rope (some- thing which cannot be said of the bowline.) If
you need a quick, non-slip loop in the middle of a rope, the
figure 8 is much faster to make than a bowline on
a bight. It’s also ideal for putting a loop on hard-to-grasp
twine and thread. However, the knot jams under load, so forget
about untying it later. Use the figure 8 loop for thin
cordage; stick with the bowline for rope.
FISHERMAN’S
KNOT (WATER KNOT):
Once
popular for tying leader to line, the fisherman’s knot
is now seldom used for this purpose as there are better knots
for slippery nylon. However, mountaineers like it for tying
ropes together because the knot has a finished, symmetrical
look. Canoeists and kayakers use the fisherman’s knot
to secure rope "grab loops" to the ends of their boats. Note:
the knot is somewhat stronger when tied against the
lay.
*ONE
HALF HITCH / TWO HALF HITCHES:
Use
two half-hitches to tie a rope to a tree or a boat or animal
to a ring. Sailors sometimes complete a clove hitch
with one or two half-hitch when they want infallible security.
It’s important that both half-hitches are alike, as illustrated,
i.e. both left or right- handed. Half-hitches are one of the
most essential knots in macramé.
TWO
SLIPPERY HALF-HITCHES AND A ROUND TURN:
This
is the quickest, most secure way to tie a boat or pack animal
to a ring or bar. The "round turn" on the rail takes most
of the stress off the basic knot. For faster removal, complete
the hitch with a quick-release loop ("slippery" end), as illustrated.
MOORING
HITCH:
Looks
like a slippery half hitch, but it’s not. The mooring hitch
holds fast under load yet comes apart instantly with a pull
of the bitter end. You can tie it loosely and allow it to
slide up to the rail like a slipknot, or jam the knot anywhere
along its length so you can reach and release it without getting
off your horse or out of your boat. This slick little hitch
is well worth learning!
PRUSSIK
KNOT: (Right-hand only)
Use
the Prussik knot whenever you want an absolutely secure loop
that won’t slip along a tight line. Mountaineers use this
knot for footholds to help them climb a vertical rope. The
Prussik loop slides easily along a tight rope, yet it jams
solidly when a load (horizontal or vertical) is applied. This
knot is useful for rigging rainflies in camp and for rescuing
rock-pinned canoes in a river. Make the loop from a length
of parachute cord, completed with a fisherman’s knot.
SHEEPSHANK:
(Right-hand only)
Problem:
your rope has a length of worn section in the middle. Eventually,
you’ll get around to splicing it, but for now, it will have
to be used as is. The solution is the sheepshank – an ancient
knot used by sailors to shorten rope that’s too long for the
job at hand. The sheepshank holds only when there is tension
at each end, even then, it sometimes fails. For this reason,
it is best to secure it by inserting sticks of wood through
the end loops as illustrated in figure 2-19.
*POWER-CINCH
(TRUCKER’S KNOT):
Scenario:
The rutted, muddy road worsens with each yard you travel.
"Gotta keep up speed, or we’ll never make it," you mutter.
Then, it happens: suddenly, you’re axle deep in coal black
ooze, and despite the determined whining of the front drive
wheels, you realize you are going nowhere. You take stock
of the situation. On hand, is a shovel, 50 feet of three-eighths
inch diameter nylon rope, and four sets of willing arms. With
these, you’ll have to free the car. First, you shovel the
"stopper" mud from under the belly of the car. Then you attach
your long rope to the auto frame and rig a power-cinch
around a smooth-barked birch nearby. Just six inches ahead
is firmer ground. If you can just move the car that far. The
four manpower winch line tightens: seconds later, the car
pops free, like a cookie from a mold! The power-cinch
is the most ingenious hitch to come along in recent years.
It effectively replaces the tautline hitch and functions as
a powerful pulley. Skilled canoeists use this pulley knot
almost exclusively for tying canoes on cars, and it remains
popular with truckers for securing heavy loads in place. Use
it any time you need to tie an object tightly onto a car top
or truck bed. Begin the hitch by forming the overhand loop
shown in Figure 2-20, step 1. Pull the loop through as in
step 2. It is important that you make the loop exactly
as shown. It will look okay if you make it backwards, but
it will not work! If you’re tying something onto a car top,
run the bitter (free) end of the hitch through an S-hook attached
to the bumper. (Step 4.) Snug the hitch and secure it with
a pair of half-hitches around the bight, as illustrated in
step 5. Or, for ease of removal, end the power-cinch with
a quick-release half-hitch, as in step 6. The power-cinch
as a multiple pulley: For additional power, as in the
above scenario, forms a second loop in the free end
of the rope as shown in step 7. This will double the mechanical
advantage, albeit increase friction. The Nantahala Outdoor
Center (a whitewater canoe and kayak school) as the "Z-drag
popularized this rescue technique – commonly set up with aluminum
carabiners instead of rope loops –" because the rope pattern
forms a lazy Z when viewed from overhead.
*QUICK-RELEASE
(SLIPPERY) LOOP:
If
you end your knots with a "quick-release" (slippery) loop,
as illustrated, you’ll be able to untie your ties with a single
pull. Form the "QR" feature by running the bitter end of the
rope back through the completed knot – same as making a "bow"
when you tie your shoes. Use a simple overhand knot with a
slippery loop to seal draw- string bags and stuff sacks. The
plastic "cord-locks" sold in camping stores for this purpose
are for people who don’t know how to tie slippery knots.
*SHEET-BEND/DOUBLE
SHEET-BEND/ SLIPPERY SHEET-BEND:
The
sheet-bend is one of the most useful knots, and one of
the few that can be used for tying two ropes together, even
when rope sizes and materials differ greatly. Some years ago,
a friend
of
mine won five dollars when he fixed a broken water-ski tow-rope
with this bend. When the tow-line snapped, the ski-boat captain
bet my friend that he couldn’t tie the two ends of the slick
polypropylene rope back together tightly enough to hold. My
friend won the bet and skied the remainder of the day on the
repaired line. It’s important that the bitter (free) ends
of the sheet bend be on the same side, as illustrated,
otherwise the knot will be unreliable. If you want the knot
to release instantly, end it with a quick-release (slippery)
half hitch (figure 22b). For greater security, especially
in plastic rope, use the double sheet-bend (Becket
Bend). Same as the single version but with an extra coil around
the standing loop (figure 22c).
STRAP
KNOT:
Not
a knot, per se, but a handy method of tying leather or nylon
straps together to form a long rope. Nothing more than a single
half-hitch, each made opposite to the other.
S-KNOT:
Here’s
an artistic way to tie two ropes together. Similar to a
fisherman’s knot, the S-knot has more coils and
so is probably more secure, especially in slippery ropes.
Place the ends of the rope parallel to one another and take
three or more complete turns around the two ropes, then run
the bitter (free) end down the center of the knot. Do the
same with the other rope. Finally, slide the knots together
to complete the S-knot.
SQUARE
KNOT (REEF KNOT):
For
centuries sailors have used this knot for reefing sails and
tying things aboard ship. The square knot is still
used for this purpose but is probably more popular for tying
packages, gauze dressings, tourniquets, and other medical
applications. Don’t use this knot
for joining two ropes together if they will be under load!
The square-knot jams under tension and falls apart
(it becomes two half-hitches) if the ropes are very dissimilar
or the pull comes unevenly. Use a sheet-bend, fisherman’s
knot, or two bowlines for joining ropes. To form a
square knot rather than a common granny, complete each
over-hand knot opposite the other. Thus, if the first
knot is formed right-handed (right over left), the second
must be made left-handed (left over right).
TAUT-LINE
(ROLLING HITCH):
Sailors
use the rolling hitch whenever they want to attach
a rope to a spar. The knot is much more secure than a clove
hitch, especially when the load is parallel to the spar.
The same hitch can be applied to a tight rope that’s secured
around a tree or tent stake, in which case it is called the
"taut-line hitch" (figure 2-27b). Boy Scouts prefer the
taut- line hitch for anchoring their tent guy lines. The
hitch slides freely, yet jams under load. The original
rolling hitch (figure 2-27a) is a fine knot for its intended
purpose. The taut-line version, however, is less versatile
and much inferior to the more powerful power-cinch (trucker’s
knot) explained on page 38.
TIMBER
HITCH: (Right-hand only)
Use
the timber hitch for hauling logs, timbers, heavy pipe,
and cumbersome objects. It’s very strong (about 70 percent),
won’t slip, and it can’t jam, no matter how heavy the load.
I often attach the tow rope to my Jeep with a timber hitch
when clearing brush and trees. It always comes apart easily.
It’s best to complete the timber hitch with a half-hitch
near the hauling end to keep a long log from twisting.
SQUARE
LASHING:
Use
this classic lashing to secure two spars that touch each other
at the point where they cross. Begin the lashing with a
clove hitch or timber hitch around the vertical
spar, just below the cross-piece (A). Run the cord over the
horizontal bar, around behind the vertical bar, then back
over the face of the horizontal bar on the left. Tighten snugly,
then bring the cord behind the vertical bar and up the right
front side of the horizontal bar. Repeat this three or four
times. Finish with two "frapping" (binding) turns to tighten
the lashing, and lock everything in place with a clove hitch
on the crosspiece.
TRIPOD
LASHING:
Here’s
a fast, secure way to make a support for a camera or coffee
pot. If you end the lashing with a quick-release (slippery)
clove hitch, it will come undone instantly. Procedure:
Lay out the spars on the ground with the center spar pointing
away from the other two. Begin with a clove hitch or
timber hitch at the end of one of the side spars. Then,
make six to eight loose turns around all three spars and finish
up with two frapping (binding) turns between each spar. A
clove hitch on the center bar completes the lashing. Note:
the sheer lashing (not illustrated) – which is used
to secure parallel spars in bridges and tables – is simply
a two-legged version of the tripod lashing.
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