| TRAIL
MOVEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
The Philippine wilderness may not be that hospitable to the
foreign backpacker as well as to the locals, considering the
state of the trail, location and number of participants. Knowing
how to organize and behave with your group will make or break
your trip. Basic know-how and common sense plays an important
role in your survival in the wilderness.
Before setting out be sure that you are in good condition.
Eat a heavy breakfast to ensure energy during most of the
day and stop walking when there is plenty of daylight to set-up
your first campsite. Following are warm-up and stretching
techniques. This is particularly important since this will
loosen your muscles and therefore greatly reduce the chances
of injury.
WARM-UP
AND STRETCHING TECHNIQUES
The general warm-up should begin with ‘joint-manipulation,’
starting either from your toes and working your way up, or
from your fingers and working your way down. Make slow circular
movements (both clockwise and counter-clockwise) until the
joint moves smoothly. You should rotate the following (in
the order given, or in the reverse order): 1. Fingers and
knuckles 2. Wrists 3. Elbows 4. Shoulders 5. Neck 6. Trunk/waist
7. Hip 8. Leg 9. Knees 10. Ankles 11. Toes
After your general warm-up, you should engage in some slow,
relaxed stretching. Once again you should start from the top
and work down (or from the bottom and work up) to stretch
the following: 1. Forearms and wrists 2. Triceps 3. Neck 4.
Chest 5. Sides (external oblique) 6. Back 7. Buttocks 8. Groin
(adductors) 9. Thighs (quadriceps and abductors) 10. Hamstrings
11. Calves 12. Shin 13. Instep. Hold the stretched position
for 5 seconds, at least.
MOVING
OUT
Keep an eye on the mountain during the approach hike, studying
it for climbing routes. The distant view reveals gross patterns
of ridges, cliffs, as well as the average angle of inclination.
As you get closer, you can get the general idea of the terrain,
i.e. fault lines, brand of cliffs and crevasses. Throughout
the approach follow the old mountaineering dictum to "climb
with your eyes." Keep on the lookout for alternative routes,
possible water sources, emergency campsites, firewood and
or anything that can be used in case an emergency arises.
In short, be wary of your surroundings. The ideal distance
between climbers is two (2) meters or seeing distance.
SIGNALING
Before setting out be sure that your group set rules for signaling.
The following are the signals used by the MMS when climbing.
The signal for stopping is two (2) short whistle blasts; while
signal to proceed is one (1) long whistle blast and these
are the sole responsibility of the lead and tail men. The
international mountaineering distress signal is 6 blast to
a minute. To signal that aid is on the way, give 3 blast to
a minute.
WALKING
TECHNIQUES
The basic skill that is required for a mountaineer is walking.
The oldest form of transportation ever used by man and it
is the most indispensable technique the mountaineer will ever
use. When walking into the wilderness the shortest distance
between two points is not necessarily a straight line. The
shortest distance for a mountaineer is the most easy and safe
one. Also, before setting out, make sure that you are properly
and thoroughly warmed-up, either by a 5minute jog-in-place
or stretching techniques.
LACING
TECHNIQUES
Following is an insight on how to lace your shoes properly
for maximum comfort. This was taken from University of Texas
Lifetime Health Letter dated January 1995. For mountaineers
or backpackers, all we know is that we have to lace our shoes
the way we do it when we are in grade school. The way you
lace your shoe can increase your foot comfort or relieve foot
pain while walking. Proper lacing can also increases the lifespan
of your shoes, according do the American Orthopedic Foot and
Ankle Society.
Tips for lacing:
-
Loosen laces as you slip shoes on to reduce stress on eyelets
and backs of shoes.
-
Beginning at the toe end, tighten laces one pair of eyelets
at a time to reduce eyelet stress and ensure uniform pressure.
-
When buying new shoes, keep in mind that shoes with more
eyelets make for easier adjustment (many better athletic
shoes have two sets).
-
Conventional crisscross lacing works best for most people.
Alternative lacing patterns may be appropriate for specific
types of feet or to ease some foot problems.
Carol Fray, M.D. associate professor of orthopedic surgery
at the University of Southern California, offers these suggestions
(letter in parenthesis indicates illustration):
-
Narrow feet: Consider using wide-set eyelets that bring
the sides of the shoe more snugly across the top of the
foot (a).
-
Wide feet: Eyelets set closer to the tongue and set closer
together add width to the lacing area (b).
-
Narrow heel, wide forefoot: Consider using two laces for
a custom fit (c). The wide-set eyelets help snug up the
heel, and the closer-set eyelets help adjust shoe width
to the forefoot.
-
Feet pain: For pain in specific areas of the foot, try skipping
eyelets in the vicinity of the pain and tightening laces
above and below the skipped eyelets (d).
-
High arches: Lacing straight across between eyelets (instead
of crisscrossing) can reduce or eliminate pressure points
(e).
-
Toe problems: For toe problems, including hammertoes, corns
and painful toenails, insert laces so that one lace traverses
diagonally across the length of the tongue, from toe to
top (f). Pulling on the lace will raise the toe box to reduce
pressure.
-
Heel fit: The lacing pattern shown in illustration (g) can
help prevent your heel from moving in the shoe and rubbing
blisters. Laces are looped through each other before being
tied.
PACING
Beginners often makes two mistakes in walking; they walk faster
than they should or they walk slower than they could. Walking
too fast is the most common mistake. This may be due to concerns
of the long miles ahead or from a desire to perform well in
front of the group and or companions. But why wear yourself
out of the first mile of a 10-mile hike if the whole day happens
to be available for that walk? Enjoy the walk, take your time
and smell the flowers. Pacing varies from person to person.
It also depends on the cardiovascular capacity of the person.
A simple test may reveal that your pace is too fast if you
cannot sustain it hour after hour. You’re going too fast.
The other mistake is walking too slowly. Your body might ache
but they still have 10 miles in them; your lungs may be gasp
but be able to go on gasping for 3 hours. A degree of suffering
is inevitable on the way to becoming a good walker. Pacing
also depends on the time of day and also the humidity. Walk
slowly at the start, letting your body adjust to the demands
to come. Then start striding out, using willpower to get through
this period of increasing work until the body experiences
it's second wind. Physiologically, this means that the heart
has stepped up is beat, the blood is circulating more rapidly
and the muscles have loosened. Psychologically, the hiker
feels happy and strong. Vary your pace depending on the trail.
Plod slowly and methodically up steep hills; as the grade
lessens, pick up the tempo. Your pace will slow late in the
day as fatigue sets in. Adrenaline may fuel short bursts of
exertion, but there is no "third wind." When in a group, the
pace should follow the slowest member or person with the heaviest
load. Do not lag anyone behind.
TRAIL
PRACTICES
- When
walking with a group, with any number of participants,
walk in a single file to protect the side vegetation. Avoid
overtaking. Stay on the trail even if it is muddy or rutted.
Help save vegetation and prevent erosion by not cutting
switchbacks. Make your rest breaks in resilient areas and
guard against damaging stream banks. If you see something
interesting, just look or take photographs of it instead
of picking or collecting. Do light trail maintenance and
remove litter as you pass by it. Leave the trail as you
passed it. Remove cairns and flaggings unless they are already
there; let others experience the adventure of route finding.
If you need to mark you're route, remove the markers on
your way down. Choose talus instead of fragile meadows for
cross-country travel. Always take the ridgelines for path
finding and avoid water lines and gullies. Water always
takes the steepest route down the mountain. Do not step
on obstacles; it might upset your balance. Avoid dislodging
rocks.
- When
walking uphill lean forward and place you foot
flat on the ground before pushing the other foot forward
and take small steps to conserve your strength. Do not walk
on your toes since this will cramp your legs readily.
- When
you walk downhill, take small steps and move steadily.
Lean backwards to take the strain off your knees and never
lock them straight when placing you foot on the ground.
Learn to dig with the heels or side of the foot first. Use
a walking stick if necessary to relieve help relieve the
strain off your knees.
- When
walking on steep slopes, place your foot sideways
and place the walking stick downhill for added support.
Always look for support, hold on to roots or vines and make
sure that these are sturdy and free of thorns.
REST
STOPS
Depending on the terrain, weather and the capacity of the
individual in a group, rest stops are determined. Some have
rest stops of 5 minutes per 1-hour walk for flat terrain.
A 5minute rest per 30-minute walk is advisable for ascending
terrain while a 5-minute rest per 15-minute walk is recommended
for steep terrain. Rest stops on descent will depend on the
terrain but usually its 5 minutes per 1-hour descent. Do not
sit or lie down at once during rest stops. Keep standing for
30 seconds before sitting to stabilize blood circulation.
Take only sips of water. Drinking too much will induce an
abrupt lowering of body temperature making it hard for you
to maintain your pace again.
When trail-blazing, avoid indiscriminate cutting of vegetation.
Keep trailblazing to a minimum to preserve the natural state
of the wilderness. Make sure to inform the immediate person
behind you of the obstacles and/or dangers encountered along
the path. A leadman should be assigned if the group is unsure
of the trail. Side trails not used should be closed to prevent
others from taking it. Do this by blocking the path with sticks
or branches. To make the path safer, cut sharp thorns and
poisonous plants along the trail. Avoid littering. Pocket
all candies and biscuit wrappers. Smoking on the trail and
/or during short rest stops is strictly prohibited. It may
cause forest fires. Flop belts and knots and shoelaces might
become loose. It is the duty of the man behind to check if
the man ahead of him has dropped anything on the trail. If
lost, do not panic. Try to assess your position and then take
necessary steps to find the correct route. When walking in
cold weather, minimize the rest stops to prevent the body
from cooling-off too fast.
DIFFICULT
AREAS
One of the characteristics that backpacking offers is the
challenge of overcoming differing obstacles due to bad weather
or difficult terrain.
When walking up the mountain the temperature changes rapidly.
It can be from a high temperature and humidity to cold temperatures
and dry air. A cold wind easily dissipates body heat. When
resting be sure to cover the head and neck to slow down the
heat loss. The ground may also be cold, therefore sit on your
backpack if possible.
The Philippine weather changes rapidly. One moment it’s sunny
and in 30 minutes, a torrential rain is pouring in. Rains
here are occasionally accompanied by lightning. Therefore
when climbing, especially at around 1,000 meters take these
precautionary measures in avoiding lightning strikes. Some
signs are apparent like the smell of ozone and the crack of
thunder. Lightning usually looks for the shortest route it
can make between the cloud and the ground. Therefore get off
peaks and ridges as much as possible. Medium sized trees provide
some protection if they are not hit first. When you are above
treelines, look for rocks that are taller than you do and
stand several yards away from it. When lightning hits the
ground it travels to a point of least resistance, therefore
stay away from paths like:
-
Steep inclines; where the current travels more freely
-
Wet areas; since water is a good conductor
If you find yourself above the treelines, look for big rocks
that you can crouch on to (not the highest one) that is elevated
and not connected to other rocks underneath. Do not go into
a cave or a rock depression or even an overhang, since these
places attract ground currents.
When crouching, the best position is to put your feet close
together as possible. Stand on something that can insulate
you from the ground, like a sleeping bag, mattress or a coil
of climbing rope, or even your backpack (without the metal
frame). You need to stay away from any metal objects like
your external pack frame or mess kit. Being hit by lightning
requires emergency first-aid procedures like shock, burns
and if necessary, CPR.
TRAIL
SIGNS
Trails signs are used to keep the next group to follow the
persons lead. They are usually set-up by the first sweeper
for the next group. They are placed in the middle of the trail
for everyone to see. Rocks, pebbles and small branches are
used for this.
CROSSING
RIVERS
The Philippines, as a tropical country has numerous streams
and rivers. Many are wide and deep and some are just streams.
Considering the geography and weather conditions of the Philippines
we do not have a lack of this natural feature.
Crossing them will depend on the physical feature of the river.
It can also depend on the weather, since most of the shallow
rivers here turn into raging rapids when rainfall hits. You
may have the choice of using bridges. It may be a short distance
and a waste of time, but at least you are dry. If there are
no immediate bridges available, scout the river upstream and
downstream to find a suitable shallow area to cross. You may
find rocks to hop on to. This is just an option if the river
or creek has small rocks or boulders to hop on to. But if
it is knee deep, chances are there might not be enough rock
to hop on to. Especially here, the rivers may be shallow but
the rocks are covered with moss that the chance of slipping
is inevitable. Accept the fact that your feet will get wet
and also your boots.
If you are to cross a river, never go barefoot. There is a
great possibility that you may step on sharp stones or bones
and shell fragments. Wearing sport sandals is the best alternative.
Aside from giving adequate protection to your feet, they also
dry out relatively easy. Another alternative is the local
rubber sandals or "tsinelas." They are much lighter than the
sport sandals, dries out more readily, cheap and comes in
various colors. One disadvantage is its unsturdiness. Sneakers
are another alternative. Aside from giving better protection
to your feet, it dries out longer. Many still wear their boots
(fabric boots), since it provides much more protection to
the feet and ankles if the water is too deep and the bottom
cannot be seen. Before wearing your boots in the water, be
sure to take off you socks. At least there is something dry
to wear on the other side.
Preparation
When crossing a river be sure to pick the widest area, since
a narrow channel is generally deeper. Look for a part of the
river that is still and you can see the bottom. Do not go
straight or perpendicular to the direction of flow. This will
leave you more vulnerable to the current. Before wading into
the water be sure that you take measures to protect your clothes
dry in your backpack. Loosen all straps, sternal and waist
belt of your backpack. This is done to easily discard your
pack if you fall into the water. When wading alone, use a
pole to probe the bottom of the river. This will serve as
your third leg and to maintain your balance during the crossing.
Some use two poles to provide better stability. Always head
downstream and in an angular direction. Place your foot sideways
across the current and squarely on the riverbed.
MAPS
There are many types of maps. There are political maps, world
maps, street maps, topographical maps, National park maps,
Profile maps and others, each with a different purpose and
use. For the outdoorsman a geographic or topographical, "topos",
is the ideal type to use. It shows the supposed terrain of
a particular locality as seen from above. It displays the
hills, valleys, and mountains, rivers and also man-made structures
that are represented by grids and contour lines. There are
2 types of topos; the 15-minute map and the 7.5-minute map.
A minute refers to a fraction of a degree and one minute is
equal to 1/60 of a degree. Therefore, one inch on a 15-minute
map is equal to one mile or 1.6 km on the ground. For the
7.5-minute map, a one-inch will equal 2/5 of a mile on the
ground. The advantage of a 7.5-minute map is its more detailed
picture of the land. Another type of map is the National Park
map. These maps provides the traveler with general info about
major hiking trails, as well as where to find campsites, foods,
restrooms, good swimming and other activities but it does
not provide enough detail for serious hiking. A profile map
provides info such as the ups and downs of a trail, the mileage
between important landmarks, and the steepness and length
of climbs and descents. But profile maps are not topos. Instead
of using contour lines these maps convey information on a
graph that measures the elevation gained or lost per mile.
MAP
READING
The worst time and place to learn how to read a map is when
you realized that you’re lost in the middle of a remote wilderness.
The best way to learn is to take a map with you when you’re
on a well-marked trail. Start by identifying the map’s landmarks
in the field such as mountain peaks or a river’s mouth. As
with everything, the more you practice the better you’ll get
to read the map.
There are also times you are deep in the woods and you cannot
see any of your established landmarks. Right before entering
the forest you should have established your route. You can
then rely on where you were last, your general direction,
and the speed of your walk. This is your "educated guess"
in which time provides an approximate location on where you
are based on the last location verified. When you’re out of
the woods, in an open field or peak, re-establish your location
by using identifiable landmarks. Be careful in choosing landmarks
since they are a lot to choose from in an open field or summit.
BASIC
PARTS OF A MAP
The grids determine the approximate distance as described
by their scale. For walkers a 1:50,000-scale map will do.
Vertical lines are called eastings while the horizontal lines
are called northings.
Contour
lines
These lines are the basic building blocks of a topographic
map. It describes the actual look of the terrain, if it is
a hill, mountain, valley, or river as seen from above. Following
are some map features in relation to the actual terrain. Successive
circles form hills and mountains, getting smaller and smaller
as the altitude goes higher and as they get closer to each
other the steeper it gets. Valleys are drawn as lines with
varying lines. Saddles are drawn when two hills or mountains
are close together. A ridge is drawn with an elongation and
a circle at the end. (with pictures and illustrations)
Gradient
lines
These are used to describe the slope of a particular terrain.
They are usually drawn as successive lines that are either
close together or far apart. There are two kinds of slope,
one is the convex slope, wherein the contour lines are close
to the slope and spread out towards the top. The concave slope
has its contour lines bunch up at the top.
Legends
These are usually found at the side corner of your map. They
describe man-made features such as churches, houses, roads,
bridges, farmlands, and others. Some maps have color legends
to describe forestlines, rivers, lakes and other natural features.
One important feature of a map that is to be without is the
declination factor. This will be discussed on the topic of
compass reading.
MEASURING
MAP DISTANCES
After knowing where you are, you have to know how far you
have gone. You can estimate the distance traveled by using
a piece of paper. Since the route you are taking is rarely
a straight line, your estimating technique must be accurate.
-
Start at the corner of the paper, align the edge with the
route. Put a pencil at the point on the route where it turns.
Mark the paper.
-
Rotate the paper and align it to the route again. When you
encounter the next turn mark it with the pencil. Place any
landmarks you have encountered along the way.
-
When you reach the other corner of the paper, rotate it
and continue along the edge of the paper.
-
After you have completed the route on the paper, place it
against the key at the foot of the map. Mark each kilometer
or mile on the sheet.
-
Total the number of kilometers or miles. This is your route
distance. By marking the steep gradients, it will help you
determine the length of time it will take to walk the route.
ESTIMATING
JOURNEY TIME
You already know the distance but how long it will take you
to walk the route is another problem. You must bear in mind
that the paper procedure for determining distance is on a
flat surface and does take into account the topography of
the route. Therefore when estimating travel time you must
include allowances for time lost when climbing steep hills.
But this can be gained when going down a steep terrain or
hill as well as it can slow you down.
NAISMITH'S RULE
There are several other names for this travel time estimation
technique, but the basics of the technique are:
-
For every 5km of easy going, allow 1 hour
-
For every 3km of easy scrambling, allow 1 hour
-
For every 1km of rough land, deep sand, or thick bush, allow
1 hour
-
Add an extra hour for every 500m up (cumulative)
-
Add an extra hour for every 1000m down (cumulative)
-
Add an extra hour for every five hours, to allow for fatigue.
For example, take our hike up Mt. Banahaw (Tayabas trail).
We will be travelling about four kilometers over clear terrain.
So allow one hour for that. We will be climbing about 200m,
then coming back down 200m, so allow an extra half-hour for
that. We won't be travelling for a long time, so there is
no allowance for fatigue.
The total travelling time is therefore 2 hours. This is a
very pessimistic approximation, as I have done the complete
trip in less than half an hour - but that is with no pack.
Once you do the walk with a pack on, in rough country, on
fire trails rather than on open road, your speed will start
to drop a little.
Nota
Bene
Note that not everyone can maintain a cracking pace of 5km/h
with an 18kg pack on their backs! You will need to adjust
this rule to suit yourself and your hiking partner or group.
The best way to do this is to find a day hike close to you,
get the topographic map relative to that area, and do the
hike. While you are doing that hike, time how long it takes
you to get up hills, down hills and along straights. Once
you have done that, calculate your straight and level travelling
speed. Use the time it took you to climb the hill to calculate
the "up climb" adjustment. Use the time it took you to climb
down the hill to calculate the "down climb" adjustment. When
you have finished, apply Naismith's rule to your hike and
see if you get within 5% of your actual travelling time and
checkpoint times. Keep adjusting the figures in the rule to
suit you.
USING
A COMPASS
[Did you know: The compass is less than 4500 years old. It
is a fairly simple piece of equipment that was invented by
the Chinese around 2500 BC. It consists of a magnetized piece
of steel balanced on a pivot so that it is free to swing in
any direction.]
One of the important gadgets you need when in the wilderness
is a compass. Without one is like asking yourself to get lost.
You can use the compass to do the following;
-
To know where you are by identifying landmarks surrounding
you like peaks, ridges, passes, lakes.
-
To know what is your position. By using a map you can know
where you are through bearing readings.
-
To give directions to others. Basically, if you have a map
and a compass you can give bearing directions to other people.
This is also important on emergency situations wherein your
location is uncharted.
-
To follow a bearing to a location which you cannot see.
TYPES
OF COMPASS:
Air filled compasses work just fine, the drawback
is that you must wait quite some time for the needle to come
to rest so that you can take a bearing. It also requires the
compass to be held stationary, so they do not work well when
hand held.
Liquid filled compasses are the most
effective in breaking the swing of the needle quickly. The
majority of compasses on the market are liquid filled which
is a mixture of water and alcohol.
KINDS
OF COMPASS
Silva compass (protractor, orienteering)
Prismatic compass
GPS
PARTS
OF A COMPASS (PROTRACTOR/SILVA TYPE)
Direction-of-travel arrow on baseplate
Magnifying lens
"N" north indicator (needle)
Orienteering arrow on bottom of housing
Baseplate
Map scale – expressed in mm or cm
Luminescent spots
North-seeking end of the rotating arrow
Rotating compass dial, with cardinal points and degrees
DECLINATION
OR MAGNETIC VARIATION
When you see your map there is that reading at the side, bottom
corner, stating the declination factor. This number indicates
the corrective reading for the map based on the three norths
and three arrows mark them. The map will show you only the
relative direction you are taking, mainly from one point to
another point. But when you relate the direction of your compass
to the map you might find that it is off to a few degrees.
This is declination. It is the difference, expressed in degrees,
between where your compass says north is and where the grid
north and magnetic north really is. There are three north
poles, one is the magnetic North Pole, wherein your compass
points to, the grid north, it is the north marked on maps
and the "true" geographic north pole. The true North Pole
is taken from measurements of the astral and geography of
the earth, it’s the axis where the earth rotates.
Maps are typically drawn using the true north reading typically
because it is based on mathematical calculations and it does
not vary from one location to the other while your compass
points to the magnetic north, it changes from time to time
therefore it is not that accurate.
NAVIGATION
METHODS
Orienting
your map
Before beginning your trip, make sure to set your map with
your compass. This will ensure that you know your destination
on the map. In addition to knowing the bearing of your destination,
you must also know its distance. You can do this by using
either the scale along the edge of the compass, or the scale
provided at the bottom of your map. Be sure to check your
bearing on the map while walking against the terrain you are
crossing.
Here are some steps you can make to orient your map using
your compass:
-
Place your map on a flat surface. To find the bearing from
point A to point B, lay the compass between points A and
B. make sure that the direction arrow is pointing to your
destination. Read the distance between the two points using
the scale at the edge of the compass. Compare the reading
to that of the map scale.
-
Without moving the compass, turn the central dial until
the parallel north-south lines are aligned with the grid
lines on the map. If you don’t have a topographical map
with the gridlines use the margins or side of the map. The
number on your compass housing that line up with the direction
of travel is your bearing. If you have a hassle free compass
with the built-in declination feature, then the number is
your true bearing, otherwise calculate the declination.
-
Take the compass off the map and hold the compass firmly
against your chest with the direction-of-travel arrow pointing
toward the landmark. When you adjust your position turn
your body with the compass. Check and recheck the alignment
of the direction-of-travel arrow. Face the landmark squarely.
-
Look down at the compass and turn the dial until the north
end of the needle is closest to N. Do this without changing
your position and the direction of the compass. Read the
bearing on the dial against the direction-of-travel line
(arrow).
Backtracking
Reciprocal bearings and headings, sometimes marked on the
azimuth dial, are simply the reverse of your original bearing,
or 180 degrees different. For example: For an original bearing
of 20 degrees NE, the reciprocal bearing is 200 degrees SW
(20 + 180).
If math isn't for you, simply line the red arrow up with south
instead of north and use the same heading you took to get
there.
CHECKING
DIRECTIONS
In the wilderness accurate prediction of where you are is
vital. This is true if you don’t have a compass to start with
or something happened and you have just lost it along the
way. Knowing where you are in relation to the four cardinal
directions – North, East, West and South is a basic skill
that every mountaineer or backpacker for that matter must
know. Other ways of finding your way is by the sun and a staff;
the sun and a watch and at night, the North Star is your guide.
Finding directions by using the sun
This method is often used since we are given the fact that
the sun rises at the east and sets in the west.
Staff
Method.
This method uses the staff and the sun to find directions.
Get a staff or a similar implement. Post it in the ground
in direct sunlight in the morning, mark the tip of the staff’s
shadow. In the Northern Hemisphere this is West. Get a string
of the same length as the cast shadow of the staff. Tie one
end to the staff and the other end to a small stick. Draw
a semi-circle with the staff as the center. Be sure to tie
the string loosely on the staff. In the afternoon mark the
tip of the shadow where it touches the arc, this is east.
Draw a line from the afternoon stick to the point where you
placed the morning stick. The halfway point between the two
sticks is the true North.
Watch
Method
Northern
Hemisphere: using a watch, point the hour hand at the
sun. Then draw an imaginary line between the hour hand and
12 o’clock mark. Halfway between the line is south.
Southern
Hemisphere: point the 12 o’clock mark at the sun. Halfway
between the hour hand and the 12 o’clock mark is North.
*Since the Philippines is in the Northern Hemisphere the first
procedure is applicable. Nevertheless knowing how to use this
in the Southern Hemisphere is an added bonus.
FINDING
NORTH BY THE NORTH STAR
Stars can be used at night to find direction. They move through
the sky as the Earth rotates. But there is only one star that
never moves and this is called the "North star" or "Pole star."
The North star is particularly important if you are in the
Northern hemisphere, while in the Southern hemisphere you
must find the Southern Cross to establish South.
Northern Hemisphere: the Big Dipper or Ursa Major is the constellation
to use to find North. It is those group of seven stars that
form which looks like a ladle (Plough). When you have established
its location look for its front end. The two stars of the
bowl farthest from the handle will point you to the North
Star. Do this by drawing an imaginary line about four times
the distance of the two stars. The bright star is the North
Star and directly below it lies North.-
Southern Hemisphere: use the Southern Cross to find the approximate
South. After you have found the Southern Cross draw an imaginary
line 4 ½ times its length. Locate two stars just below the
Southern Cross. Draw an imaginary line in between these two
stars. The point where the imaginary lines cross is south.
As with finding the directions using the sun, you can also
use any star to roughly establish your direction. When the
stars move up, you are facing east. When the stars move down
you are facing West. If the stars move in an arc towards your
left, you are facing north. When the stars move in an arc
towards your right your are facing a Southerly direction.
KNOWING
THE WEATHER
Going out to the wilderness does not mean that you are always
dry and warm. In the Philippines, since our location is on
the equatorial region, most of the Philippine wilderness is
rainforests. Expect rain, most of the time. You can apply
the expression "when it rains, it pours" and it really does.
Weather here, typically is unpredictable. It might rain on
one side while at the other side its dry. Combined with high
humidity and temperature walking along most Philippine trails
is very taxing to the body.
Because of the location of the Philippines, the mountains
here are usually wet rainforests. Temperature may range from
36 degrees Celsius at sea level to 10 degrees Celsius at 800
meters above sea level. Therefore, it is best to check weather
forecast before making your trip. Although it is not accurate,
at least you have a general idea on what to expect.
BASIC
WEATHER FORECASTING
Clouds
Clouds may indicate what weather to come. Cumulus clouds (billows)
indicates good weather though they can sometimes turn-quite
quickly into darker clouds, which means that thunder and lightning
will become the order of the day. Stratus clouds (layered
looking) is usually prevalent on hazy days. They become thicker
and get dense enough to block the sun. it this happens, a
light rain may ensue. Should they turn dark and get lower
in the sky heavier rain may be on the way. Cirrus clouds (wispy)
have turned up ends that give them the nickname "mare’s tails."
If they get dark and seem to descend from the sky, rain can
result. These are the most elusive of clouds, and can keep
you guessing as to what they will do.
Winds
Hot air rises and cold air falls. Wind is created when this
happens; combining this knowledge with your observations of
clouds, you can guess the coming weather fairly well. When
clouds are moving quickly across the sky, condition can change
quite rapidly. If the temperature gets cooler as clouds are
getting darker, there’s a pretty good chance that foul weather
will follow. If cumulus clouds appears at a distance, and
temperatures are on the rise, count on fair weather.
Humidity
and Fog
Humidity results from a lot of water in the air and can indicate
coming of showers. Hikers who notice greater humidity in combination
with a darkening sky should prepare for rain. Fog is an extreme
form of humidity – saturated air; in fact, it’s a cloud that
has formed down near the land because conditions happen to
be right for it. Fog may become so dense that vision is limited;
identifying the landmarks on your map may become impossible.
Animals
Many birds flying around a cloudy sky can indicate rainfall.
Other
indications
-
Red sunsets usually indicates good weather the next day.
A gray or yellowish glow indicates wet weather is on the
way. A red sky in the morning shows the sun lighting up
high cirrus clouds, which may lower later on – a warning
that wet weather may follow.
-
If voices seem louder, or the clink of pats and pans against
the side of the rock or at each other are more shrill than
usual, this may foretell an approaching storm. As clouds
lower in the sky, sound waves hit them and bounce back faster
than usual. You might think that your hearing has become
more acute. Once the clouds have lifted, sounds will return
to normal.
-
At night a halo around the moon tells of approaching rain.
The halo is the refraction of light off ice crystals in
cirrus or light clouds.
- Observe camp fires, when the smoke is sideways, rainfall
is coming.
PLANNING
A ROUTE
Planning
your route
Before climbing be sure that you know where you are going,
exactly. Right now, the best way to plan your route is by
going there yourself. It is quite impractical and time consuming
but if you are to be with an expedition group it may be a
time saver. Clearing obstacles and solving problem trails
during this time. In the Philippines, you can plan your route
by asking the locals. They can point you to an established
trail, since most trails here are already being used by the
locals for their agricultural as well as hunting needs. If
however you got lost, look for an open spot, or a high point
to survey the land. Usually, ridgelines are easier to follow,
as well as rivers, since they have footpaths that have been
used by locals.
Walking
at night
When walking at night, have a torch strapped on your head.
Walk slowly if the trail is not familiar, muddy and raining.
If in doubt, test the ground with your foot before putting
any weight on it. This is true in situations when it is raining
and the ground is saturated with water, mud can easily accumulate
and slippage is imminent. Walk in hearing distance with each
other. This will ensure your safety along the way.
HEIGHT
DETERMINATION
Knowing your own personal measurements is a big plus when
walking in the wilderness. You can determine the distance
you have taken during your walks, know the height of certain
trees and cliffs and widths of campsites and rivers. There
are standard measurements such as a foot (12 inches) or 1
meter (2 strides). But these are relative measurements, meaning
that they differ from person to person. Therefore it is important
to know your own measurements. For instance, your foot can
measures 8.5 inches and your stride can be 1.5 stride per
meter.
Shadow Method - (this method can be used
only if the sun is in the position to cast a shadow over an
object)
-
Measure the length of the shadow cast by a person or staff
of known height (CD in the illustration).
-
Measure the length of the shadow of the tree (AB).
-
Divide the distance in (2) by the distance in (1).
-
Multiply the result by the known height.
This is the height of the tree
MEASURING
WIDTHS
Here are some simple ways to find out the width of a river.
Napoleon
Method (usually used if the river is narrow)
-
Stand erect on one shore or bank of the river.
-
Bend your head so that your chin rests on your chest.
-
Push your hat forward until the front edge of the brim seems
to touch the opposite shore. (If you have no hat, place
your hand on your forehead, palm down, so that the front
edge of your palm seems to touch the opposite shore).
-
Standing on the same spot, turn 90 degrees to the right.
(make a right face)
-
Transfer the point on which the brim of your hat or the
edge of your hand which seemed to touch the opposite bank
to a spot or the ground on your side of the river.
-
Stride it off and find the distance.
Stride
or Step-measuring method (usually used if the river is wide)
-
Select any point (A) on the opposite side of the river which
can serve as a landmark – a tree, a rock, etc.
-
Place a stake (B) on your side of the river exactly opposite
the point (A) you have selected.
-
Walk a straight line along the shore for a distance of 100
steps. (More may be necessary if river is very wide. Your
path should make a right angle with the imaginary line AB.)
-
Place another stake at this point, (C).
-
Continue walking along the shore on the same line (BC) half
as many steps as you have made before (in this case, 50).
-
Place another stick on the spot indicating the 50th
step (D).
-
From point D, turn left 90 degrees (make a left face).
-
Walk a straight line (your path should make a right angle
with the line DB) until you can sight point C and landmark
A forming a straight line.
-
Stop and mark this point E. the distance between points
I and E is half the distance across the river.
-
Walk from D to E, counting your steps.
-
Multiply the result by two.
MEASURING
DISTANCES
There are times when you are tasked to judge distances. Practice
will play an important role in doing this. You may have to
start at short distance, lets say 20 meters and gradually
increase it by 100 then to 150 and then to 200. By practicing
this you can gain accurate measurements by just looking at
a subject at a distance. The following are some hints to measure
distance accurately:
The
range of objects is usually overestimated:
When kneeling or lying;
When the background and the object are of familiar colors;
On broken ground;
In avenues, long street, or ravines;
When the object is under the shade;
In the mist or falling rain, or when heat is rising from the
ground;
When the object is partly seen.
The
range of objects is usually underestimated:
When the sun is behind the observer;
When the atmosphere is clear;
When the background and the object are of different colors;
When the ground is level;
When looking over water or a deep chasm;
When looking upward or downward.
It
is worthwhile to know and remember the following facts:
At 50 yards the mouth and eyes of a man can be clearly seen;
At 100 yards the eyes appear as points;
At 200 yards buttons and any bright ornament can be seen;
At 300 yards the face can be seen;
At 400 yards the movement of the legs can be seen;
At 500 yards the color of the clothes can be seen.
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