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The Seljuq Turks
By Steven Lowe and Martin Baker
The Seljuqs were among 24 Turkish tribes known as the Oghuz or Ghuzz, originally from Western Siberia. They are thought to have been descended from the Hung-Nu (a Chinese form of Turk). They originally worshipped the elements, but were converted to Islam in the mid-tenth century AD.
Seljuq and his heirs
Their founder, Seljuq, was the son of a Turkish commander in the Khazar army. In the late 900’s, his tribe took service with the Sama’nid Arabs in present-day Turkestan. But shortly afterwards, they and other Turkish warriors in the Sama’nid army rebelled, and invaded the region across the Oxus River.
They expanded westward from 1025 to 1029, but King Mahmood of Ghazna halted them and captured Seljuq’s son Arslan. Scattering west and north, Arslan’s nephews Tughril Beg and Daood assumed the leadership. In 1039 Tughril captured the western territories of the Ghaznavid Kingdom, leaving Persia open to conquest.
Under Tughril Beg the Ghuzz expanded south and west from 1040, but in 1042 the Arabs defeated a Ghuzz army in northern Iraq, temporarily checking their advance. Tughril’s half-brother, Ibraham Inal, attacked the Muslim lands north-east of the Tigris, and invaded Armenia, going on to capture Ispahan in 1050 and Azerbaijan four years later.
Qaim, the Khalif of Islam, inserted Tughril Beg’s name in public prayers, and in 1055 invited him to Baghdad. Soon after he arrived - with his army - trouble started and the Ghuzz ended up taking control of the city. In March 1056 the Khalif married the daughter of Tughril’s brother Daood, who was now ruler of Khurasan, and the following year named Tughril Beg Sovereign of the East and West.
Shortly afterwards Tughril left for Hamadan. But shortly after he left Basaseeri, acting for the rival Khalif Mustansir, attacked and captured Baghdad. Tughril’s army had already gone home with the spoils looted from Iraq, and he appealed for aid to his brother Daood. But Daood died before the message reached him, and it was left to his son Alp Arslan to take up the torch. He arrived with an army, but before he could deal with Basaseeri, he was forced to fight a battle with Tughril’s half brother Ibrahim Inal. Tughril then marched on Baghdad, entering the city in early January 1060. Basaseeri fled upon hearing of the Sultan’s approach, and was killed in an engagement on the Euphrates.
In August 1062 Tughril married the daughter of Khalif Qaim, by proxy. In January 1063 he came to Baghdad to see his bride. He then returned to Rei, where he died in August. He had no children.
Alp Arslan
Alp Arslan was named as Tughril Beg’s successor. If accounts are to be believed, he was tall, strong, brave, cultured, unspoilt, noble, chivalrous, courteous and a magnificent archer. But like his uncle he could neither read nor write. His brother Qutlumish refused to swear allegiance and marched on Rei, but was defeated and killed in December 1063. Early in the next year Alp Arslan was inaugurated as Sultan by Khalif Qaim in Baghdad, and his name was inserted in public prayers.
On the death of Byzantine Emperor Constantine Ducas in 1067, his widow married the distinguished general Romanos Diogenes, who ousted Constantine’s young son Michael VII to become Emperor Romanos IV. He decided to evict the Seljuqs from Armenia, but could only raise a hotchpotch mercenary army, which he commanded in person. In 1068 Romanos marched to Cappadocia and took Menbij, northeast of Aleppo.
At the battle of Manzikert, on August 19th 1071, the Byzantine army was routed and Romanos captured. Alp Arslan imposed peace terms and set Romanos free to return to Byzantium. But Romanos was captured and blinded by his stepson, Michael VII, dying a few days later. Within a year Alp Arslan was also dead, stabbed by a captive brought before him for questioning. Subsequently the Seljuq of Rum (their name for Asia Minor, a corruption of “Rome”) became effectively independent of the “Great Seljuq” of Persia.
The Seljuqs of Rum
In 1072, Emperor Michael VII appealed to Sultan Sulaiman ibn Qutlumish for help against the Norman mercenary Roussel de Bailleul, who had rebelled and set up an independent principality in Byzantine territory. Roussel was defeated outside the walls of Constantinople by the combined armies, but the Turks had now achieved a foothold in Asia Minor. Later Byzantine rebels raised Turcoman forces and led them to the Bosphoros, where they firmly established themselves. By using Turkish armies to decide dynastic squabbles, Byzantium allowed internal disputes to override the safety of the realm, and lost Asia Minor by default.
Sulaiman established his capital in Nicea, only sixty miles from Constantinople. In 1084 he seized Antioch, which had been held by the Byzantines since 969 AD, and in 1086 he marched on Aleppo. The Arab prince of Aleppo asked King Tutush of Damascus for help. In a battle outside Aleppo Tutush was victorious, Sulaiman stabbing himself with his own dagger. His son Kilic Arslan was taken prisoner and held in Ispahan.
During a civil war in 1092, Kilic Arslan, aged 13, escaped. He then broke with the rest of the family, regained most of his father’s kingdom by the time he was seventeen and finally declared himself “Sultan of the Rum”.
The Crusades
In 1095 a civil war was raging between two of Malik Shah’s sons. Byzantine Emperor Alexios Komnenos took advantage of the instability in the Seljuq realm and sent to Pope Urban II appealing for mercenaries to help him regain Asia Minor. Instead, at the Council of Clermont, the Pope preached a Crusade to capture Jerusalem, and Christians throughout Europe flocked to the banner. In 1096 a mainly peasant army under Peter the Hermit and the French knight Walter Sans-avoir (without worldly goods), arrived in Constantinople. They were transported across the Bosphoros and accommodated at Cibotus opposite the City. After some raiding on both sides the People’s Crusade moved out of camp on the 21st of October 1096 to attack the heathen Turks. The resulting ambush left possibly as many as 20,000 Crusaders dead, and their children were sold into slavery. Only 3000 survivors were picked up by Byzantine ships.
In December the same year, the First Crusade arrived in Constantinople. There was little interest among the Seljuq of Persia in what was happening in Asia Minor, and Kilic Arslan was busy attacking his eastern neighbour Danismend “the Wise”. While he was away, the combined Byzantine and Crusader army took his capital of Nicea and captured the Sultana. (The Emperor later restored her to him). Kilic Arslan immediately repaired relations with the Danismend and together on 1 July 1097 they attacked the Crusaders at Dorylaeum. But they were crushingly defeated, enabling the Crusaders to continue southward and conquer the Holy Land.
Kilic Arslan returned to Asia Minor and made himself master of all Anatolia. In September 1101 he completely destroyed three Crusader armies marching south to reinforce Outremer. He went on to set up a stable economy with elaborate social services, and brought renewed prosperity to Asia Minor. After a brilliant military career, Kilic Arslan was drowned at the battle of Mosul in 1107. Both the Byzantines and the Seljuqs of Persia breathed a sigh of relief.
His son, Mesud, developed bonds with Byzantium, further strengthened his kingdom and destroyed Crusader armies under Conrad II in 1147 and Louis VII of France in 1148. Mesud’s son Kilic Arslan II, in reprisal for devastating attacks by the Danismend, invaded and annexed their principality, and in 1175 he exterminated their dynasty. In September the following year he wiped out an invading Byzantine army at the battle of Myriokephalon. Kilic Arslan II died in 1189, and civil war ensued over the succession.
The Later Seljuqs
In 1204, the same year Byzantium fell to the Fourth Crusade, Giyas-al-Din Kai-Khusrau, a noble who had been exiled in Byzantium and had taken a Greek wife, became Sultan. In 1207 Kai-Khusrau captured the Mediterranean port of Antalya, giving Seljuq trade a new outlet and greatly boosting the economy. In 1210 he attacked Nicea, the capital of the Byzantine Emperor-in-exile Theodore Lascaris. During the battle the Greeks were worsted, but the Turks turned to looting, enabling a Christian to kill Kai-Khusrau and turning the victory into defeat.
Kai-Khusrau’s son, Kai-Qavus, overcame early invasions to strengthen the realm and increase its stability and prosperity. He was succeeded in 1219 by his brother Kai-Qubad I, the greatest ruler of his dynasty. He promoted trade, turned much of Anatolia into a market garden, developed industry (including sugar refineries) and built an enormous naval base at Kalonoros. By the time of his death (poisoned by his son Kai-Khusrau II in 1235/6) he controlled almost all of Asia Minor.
Kai-Khusrau II has been described as a light-hearted lover of wine and poetry. It was in his reign that the Mongols first invaded the region, overrunning Persia and capturing Baghdad. In 1242 a Mongol invasion caused the collapse of the Seljuq empire. Kai-Khusrau was strangled by his own nobles, and the Mongol ruler Hulagu placed Kai-Khusrau’s three sons jointly on the throne. The three sons conspired against each other and against the Mongols. The last brother, Izz-Al-Din, died in 1264, and was succeeded by his two-year-old son Kai-Khusrau III.
Local rulers splintered off what little power the Sultan had, but he was loyally supported by one of his nobles named Osman, who added Byzantine territory to the empire. Kai-Khusrau gave Osman the title Uc Beg (Protector of the Border). From Kai-Khusrau’s death in 1283 the Sultanate was wracked by civil war, and vanished shortly after 1308. When the Mongol Empire crumbled, it was the descendants of Osman, the Osmanli or Ottomans, who led a resurgent Turkish race to the domination of the Middle East, Constantinople and Eastern Europe.
References
Glubb, John Bagot. The Course of Empire (The Arabs and their Successors)
Hallam, Elizabeth. Chronicles of the Crusades
Maalouf, Amin. The Crusades Through Arab Eyes
Platt, Colin. The Atlas of Mediaeval Man
Talbot-Rice, Tamara. The Seljuks
The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods.
Seljuq Armour and Weapons
by Martin Baker
There are very few surviving examples of Middle Eastern or Turkic armour and shields from the Islamic periods before the 1400s and there are little known before the 1200s.Therefore most of the evidence derives from written sources, sculptures, pottery and miniatures and also from other peoples of neighbouring areas . . e.g. Kipchaqs.
There are a few points to remember when discussing Seljuq armour and weapons. Most importantly is that the Seljuqs were nomads and did not possess the capacity nor the interest to make large pieces of metal armour, or to draw wire for making mail. Especially, when it was easily obtained from their urban neighbours through trade or conquest.
Armour
The Turcoman troops of the Seljuq army mainly used quilted garments or felt armours. Even fur coats and hats offered some protection. Leather lamellar predominated as the preferred armour for those who could afford it, although some lamellar was made from iron, bronze or even horn. Their lamellar armour comprised mainly of long narrow plates with between 8 to 16 holes punched in them. These were then laced together in rows, then the rows laced to each other, overlapping upwards (the opposite to scale, which overlaps downwards). Usually the lamellar was made into a cuirass or corselet to which elbow length sleeves, calf length front split skirts and a bum flap could be added.
Their early helms were of typical Central Asian construction, multiple lames riveted together to form a bowl. All their helms had some sort of aventail attached to them. The aventail would have been made from quilted or felted material, lamellar, scale and even mail.
Greaves were probably made from iron, in splints, or leather, which could be embossed, covering the entire lower leg. Knee protection of some kind was most likely worn. Several pictures show boots coming over the knee. They were probably attached to a suspender type of arrangement connected to a belt at the waist
The forearm was protected by an armoured sleeve covered with scale, mail, splints or quilted material. Other than that, little is known about these.
The other major defensive piece of equipment was the shield. The prevalent style was a small, round, convex, hand-held buckler. This could be strapped across the arm to facilitate archery. It was probably made from silk or wool-bound cane or wood, covered with leather or cloth, with either an iron or bronze boss.
As the Seljuqs came in contact with other nations they acquired more body armour of various types. But lamellar remained the preferred body armour. The major changes were in the uses of mail hauberks from Persia and Byzantium, either worn by themselves under a coat or augmenting lamellar and a single piece forged helm.
Weapons
In offensive weaponry, the bow was king. Anybody could use a sword, but only someone with the skill can effectively wield a bow. Swords were generally straight, single-edged with the handle slightly off-set towards the blade. Curved swords were well known in Central Asia and as time went on, became popular. There are several pictures depicting very long, straight, single-edged swords (hand and half?). Only one example exists from a Kipchaq grave in Central Asia.
The flanged and animal-headed maces were known to be used and there are a few surviving examples of these. Most are cast from bronze, The flanged maces were generally octagonal in section and deeply fluted. The animal-headed maces were probably used by wealthier and professional troops from Iran.
The Central Asian composite bow eventually spread from China to Morocco and Spain. Though highly resistant to heat and cold, it could be badly affected by damp or humid climates, limiting its use in Western Europe or South Asia. This fully developed form shows how much further the composite bow could be drawn back, compared to the simple European bow. Its construction also gave a more regular release and thus a much greater power-to-weight ratio than, for example, the English longbow. The so-called Mongolian release, in which the bowstring was held by the thumb locked behind the index finger, also enabled the string to be pulled back to a more acute angle than possible with the so-called Mediterranean release used throughout Christian Europe.
Other weapons used include the lance, javelins, lasso, saddle axe and possibly the war hammer. Daggers pose some problems. There is no pictorial evidence that they were carried, but there are some written references to their being used. They appeared to have a thick-backed, single-edged blade, with a short handle tapered towards the blade. They were probably carried suspended on the belt or tucked into the boot.
A: QUIVERS. Three examples of quivers from Kipchaq graves found in Central Asia and Siberia.
A1. The quiver has rotted away leaving the bone plates and metal ridge (right side)
A2- A3. The quiver shown was found next to the leg of a body.
1: ARCHERY EQUIPMENT. Surviving Turco-Mongol archery equipment ranges from a multitude of varied arrowheads to bowcases and decorated quivers. Some arrowheads were designed to whistle as they flew (A), others to make broad wounds in unprotected victims (B-D, F & M). Many were multi-bladed (A & I), barbed (K, L & O) or designed to penetrate armour and shields (G, H, K & N). Most surviving quivers are simple affairs made of leather and/or wood but one magnificent specimen (P) is covered with carved bone plates.
A 11th-12th century Khirgiz (ex-Khudyakov)
B -F 13th-14th century from Khazakstan (ex-Pletnyeva)
G-H 11th century from various Central Asian graves (ex-Medvedyev)
I 13th-14th century from Turkish graves in Sayan-Altai mountains (ex-Pletnyeva)
J - O 11th century from various Central Asian graves (ex-Medvedyev)
P 13th-14th century from Khazakstan (ex-Pletnyeva).
B: WEAPONS & ACCESSORIES. Various swords, knives, scissors, spear heads and fire strikers from Kipchaq graves in Central Asia and Siberia.
B1. A straight, possibly single-edged sword approx. 40 inches long, 10th-12th century.
B2-B3. Two slightly curved sabres, 10th-12th century.
B4. A handle of a sabre, 10th-12th century.
B5. Two socketed spear heads, 10th century.
2: WEAPONS
A-B. Possible Iranian bronze war-hammers, 11th-13th century
C. Iranian animal-headed mace, 12th-13th century
D. Turkish or Iranian sword from Nishapur, 9th-10th century
E. European import to Ugrian western Siberia, 10th-11th century
F. Kimak sword, 9th-10th century
G. A sabre from northern Caucasus, 9th century
H. Kimak or Qarluk sword, 9th-10th century
I-J. Kirquiz sabres, 10th-12th century
3: SWORDS
Swords represent the peak of central Asian metal technology. By the Middle Ages most were single-edged though many were still straight while others had developed into fully formed sabres. Hilts had even greater variety.
A-B. Two Khirgiz swords, 10th-12th century, which have been ceremonially “killed” by heating and bending before being placed in a burial (ex-Khudyakov)
C. Metal elements of a weapons belt, 13th-14th century from the Turkish culture of the Sayan-Altai mountains (ex-Pletnyeva)
D-F. Khirgiz swords, 10th-12th century. Note that the tang of sword F has been bent sideways, perhaps to ceremonially “kill” the weapon before burial. (Ex-Khudyakov)
4: HELMETS
A. Typical central Asian helm, 8th-10th century.
B. From Tomsk area, western Siberia, 7th-10th century
C. Pecheneq from Verkhne-Vichenkov, 11th century
D. From Kipchaq grave at Moscu, Moldavia, 12th-13th century.
E. Probably Muslim origin, southern Urals, 10th-11th century.
5: HELMETS FROM THE WARQA-WA-GULSHAH (a late 12th or early 13th century Seljuq manuscript.)
A. One-piece helm, with aventail and mail collar
B. The back of the helm of a slain warrior, with aventail of cloth or mail, decorated with tassels.
C. Probably a helm with a mail aventail or a helm over a coif
D. Probably a representation of a mail coif.
E. One-piece helm with a mail aventail and a separate mail collar
F. One-piece helm with an aventail and a separate mail collar.
6: DEPICTIONS OF WARRIORS
A. Warriors from a stone relief, from Konya 12th-13th century
B. Warrior from panel of stucco relief, 12th-13th century
C. Warrior from a painted plate, from Iran 13th century. Note he is wearing a mail shirt under his coat.
D: Egyptian painting 11th-12th century. The figure on the left is a Turk; he is wearing leather boots, and his straight sword is suspended from the belt, in the typical horse-nomad fashion.
E: Three warriors from the Warqa-Wa-Gulshah, 12th-13th century. The three figures are of interest. The first figure is probably wearing only a mail coif on his head, with lamellar for body armour. He is armed with a long, straight sword similar to the one from a Kipchaq grave (Fig. 1???? On P2). He is also carrying a large round shield with a centre grip.
The second figure is wearing a pointed helm similar to the helm illustrated in picture C1(???? On P4) with an aventail and a Separate mail collar. He is also armed with a long straight sword.
The last figure is wearing a rounded helm with an aventail and a separate mail collar. The disks on the coat could represent metal plates attached to the coat as a cheap form of armour, or the pattern of the cloth. The sword he is carrying is a slightly curved sabre and the shield is a centre-grip round shield, decorated with tassels.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Elgood, Ed Robert, Arms and Armour
Robinson, Russell, Oriental Armour
North, Antony, Islamic Arms, Victoria and Albert Museum
Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London Sword and Hilt Weapons
Abbas Daneshvari, Warqah Wa Gulshah, Oxford Studies in Islamic Art
Stone, George Cameron, A glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armour
Bengt Thordeman, Armor From the Battles of Visby (History of Lamellar Armour)
Osprey Men-at-Arms Series:
Byzantine Armies
Armies of Islam 7th-11th Centuries
Saladin and the Saracens
Armies of the Crusades
Attila and the Mongol Hordes
The Mongol Warlords
An earlier draft of this article was published in Varangian Voice No. 21, Feb 1992.
A version of this article also appears at Steven Lowe's Website "Egfroth's Home Page" (http://www.oocities.org/egfrothos/).
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