CHAPTER 1:  INTRODUCTION TO SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY

 

 

WHAT IS SPORT PSYCHOLOGY?                                                      

 

·        A science in which the principles of psychology are applied in a sport or exercise setting.

·        It is often aimed to enhance performance but is much more than that and sees sport as a vehicle for human enrichment.

·        Does not support the notion:  “Win at all costs” because the goal is to help an athlete reach his potential.

·        Also, sees sport as an avenue to enhance intrinsic motivation without necessarily winning.

·        If the increase in self-control and confidence result to increase in performance, so be it.

·        It is dedicated to the enhancement of both athletic performance and social-psychological aspects of human enrichment.

·        It is the study of the effect of psychological and emotional factors on sport and exercise performance; also, the effect of sport and exercise involvement on psychological and emotional factors.

·        It is a subdiscipline of exercise and sport science; a division in psychology; division 47 of the American Psychological Association (APA)

·        It involves many specific areas in psychology but is predominantly based on personality and social psychology principles.

·        Considering these facts about sport psychology, a revised definition may be made:  Branch of exercise and sport psychology that involves scientific study of human behavior in sport and exercise, practical application of that knowledge in sport and exercise settings.

·        Study of human behavior, according to Kurt Lewin, it is a function of both person and environment.  This means that in order to study human behavior, one must consider characteristics of the person as well as factors in his environment.

	B  =  f (P , E)

 

 

 

HISTORY OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY:

 

1890-1920:

·        Norman Triplett conducted the 1^st social psychology experiment on social influence and performance.

·        George Fitz founded the 1^st physical education research laboratory in North America.

·        Robert Cummin studied the effect of basketball practice on motor reaction, attention and suggestibility.

\     Sp&ExY began by adding social psychology to motor learning.

 

1920-1940:

·        Coleman Griffith was the 1^st scientist to do systematic SpY research and practice.  He worked with George Huff to develop laboratory plans.  His research focused on psychomotor skills, learning, and personality. 

·        Griffith taught SpY and published his works.  With all his contributions to the field, he is known as the “Father of SpY in North America.” 

·        One of Griffith’s noted works was on when he interviewed Red Grange after a Michigan-Illinois football game where the athlete stated that he cannot recall even 1 second of his performance. 

·        Thus, Griffith concluded that top athletes perform skills automatically.  He also worked as the SpY of the Chicago Cubs.

 

1940-1965:

·        After Griffith, up to late 1960s, programs and researches are sporadic. 

·        After the WWII, more researches were made on motor behavior that incorporated some current sport psychology topics.

·        Franklin Henry, et al. conducted research on motor learning and performance. 

·        Warren Johnson studied precontest emotions in football.  During the 1960s, more text books on SpY.

·        In 1968, Robert Singer published the 1^st edition of Motor Learning and Human Performance, a text for undergraduate and graduate physical students on motor learning and SpY. 

·        Bruce Ogilvie and Thomas Tutko published their controversial and very popular Problem Athletes and How to Handle Them in 1966.

 

1965-1975:

·        This decade was characterized by further development of Sp&ExY research and graduate courses as well as increased activity of sport psychologists. 

·        The 1^st international association, International Society of SpY, was founded on 1965 with Ferruccio Antonelli as the founding president.  He also founded the International Journal of SpY which is the 1^st research journal in the field.

·        North American scholars met with the American Association of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (AAHPER) to discuss the development plans for the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA). 

·        The 1^st independent meeting of the NASPSPA marked the start of Human Kinetics Publishers – a milestone in SpY.  NASPSPA created specializations in motor learning, one of which is SpY. 

·        Canadian Association in SpY was also founded in this decade.  Numerous publications of researches were printed in scholarly journals.

·        The Journal of SpY which was founded in 1979 became the Journal of Sp&ExY in 1988.  This journal is the leading publication on Sp&ExY today.

 

1975-1995:

·        Development of research in Sp&ExY separated but related to motor behavior. 

·        Became Sp&ExY from SpY due to increasing societal concern over health and well-being of people.

·        Rainer Martens’ Social Psychology and Physical Activity is one of the 1^st books used in SpY courses.

·        Mid-1980s:  SpY moved to applied issues and approaches and made sport-specific models.

·        1980s:  SpYists shifted from research to applied work with athletes; conducted Y’l Skills Training (PST) with elite competitive athletes.

·        John Silva organized a meeting that formed the Association for the Advancement of Applied SpY (AAASP)

·        Richard Suinn, Steve Heyman & William Morgan organized the Division 47 of the American Y’l Association (APA) or the Sp&ExY division of APA.

·        Many started to work with teams and coaches, not just individual athletes.

·        Shane Murphy was the 1^st SpYist hired by the US Olympic Committee.

·        PST and other methods created more literature.

 

Sp&ExY Today:

·        Incorporated exercise because of the growing concern about health.

·        SpYists are becoming more diverse who are going into both research (experimental) and practice (experiential).

 

 

APPROACHES TO KNOWLEDGE IN SP&EXY:

 

Identify Research Questions:

·        Determine desired destination or goal of research (research question).

·        Understand the scientific method (Thomas & Nelson, 1996).

1.      Developing the problem

2.      Formulating the hypothesis

3.      Gathering the data

4.      Analyzing and interpreting the results

·        Review the progress in Sp&ExY research to gave firm basis of desired topic for study as well as determine of the chosen study is needed in the scientific community.

1.         From general personality measures to sport-specific measures (e.g., Sport Competition Anxiety Test or SCAT) to multi-dimensional measures.

2.         From personality dispositions to more immediate perceptions and cognitions (social-cognitive Y).

·        Decide if research is descriptive or experimental in nature.  If one merely wants to get the relationship of variables on certain issues, one may use correlation descriptive research.  If one aims to establish cause-and-effect, experimental research design is appropriate.

 

 

ETHICS & ISSUES IN SP&EXY:

 

·        Confidentiality is expected from a Sp&ExYist.  After establishing rapport with athletes, they must be told as well as feel that a Sp&ExYist will not disclose personal or private issues to any one.  However, this confidentiality may be waived if disclosing information will benefit the majority or may resolve deep and public issues.  They will however be informed of the waiver before any information will be disclosed.

·        Professionalism is also expected from a Sp&ExYist.  Respect must be mutual – command respect from athletes by showing them respect.  Personal and private issues that may affect athletes’ performance may be discussed and managed.  Nevertheless, transference (dependence on or over-“friendliness” of athlete to Sp&ExYist)  and countertransference (dependence on or over-“friendliness” of Sp&ExYist to athlete) must be avoided.  Encourage athletes to be empowered to solve their own problems in the future by not constantly seeking a Sp&ExYist for help.  Moreoever, never forget that this is still work, not an avenue to make friends with whom you can share problems and cry over them.

·        The ultimate goal of a Sp&ExYist is to better the athlete’s psychological ability in reference to their sports.

 

Measurement Issues in Research:

·        There are too many Sp&ExY measures – over 200 and counting.  Most have not been subjected to validity and reliability measures.  Thus, can not accurately measure the factors that one wants to measure.  It is the responsibility of Sp&ExYists to choose the most appropriate measure to be used as well as validate and check the reliability of measures he has developed.

·        If one can avail of a multi-dimensional measure of a certain trait, it is more recommended than one-dimensional in order to more effectively measure the complexity of human characteristics.

·        Look for Y’l measures that were made specifically for sports-related factors to validly measure an athlete’s characteristics.

·        Share the group results of your study with the proponents of the measures you used to help them further validate their tests.

·        Athletes tend to be resistant to very long tests.  Choose shorter ones if validity and reliability values of the measures are comparable.  However, it is highly recommended to give a battery of tests instead of a single measure to evaluate the characteristics of athletes.

 

Statistics & Design Issues in Research:

 

·        Decide if best research on a topic is qualitative (introspection, case study) or quantitative (correlational, experimental).  More topics in Sp&ExY are qualitative; this is may be because of the complexity of human characteristics and reactions in sports.

·        Evaluate change and the magnitude of effects of interventions.  Conducting any kind of intervention must be justified not only by perceived subjective outcome or preference but also by statistical significance.  It is also desirable if the effects of a study may be expected from other similar athletes.

·        Do not cater your study based on the desired statistical treatment.  Although MANOVA is desired by many researchers because it is sophisticated and complex, giving the impression that the study is multi-dimensional and complex.  A simple study is in no way inferior to complex studies of the topic of the former is important and needed to be tested in the scientific community.  If the research question is simple, simple statistical treatment and answer is called for, not a multivariate one.

·        The traditional scientific method has been criticized for its shortcomings and inability to guide us in developing relevant knowledge.  To increase relevance of our research and provide practical theory to guide professional practice, we must continually reconsider the paradigms and meta-theories that guide knowledge development.  The most promising routes to relevant, useful knowledge recognize the powerful influence of the social environment, focus on people-in-context, and stay mindful of the complex dynamics of Sp&Ex behavior.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References:

Cox. R.H.  (2002).  Sport psychology: Concepts and applications.  (5^th ed.).  Boston, MA:  McGraw Hill.

Gill, D.L.  (2000).  Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise.  (2^nd ed.).  Champaign, IL:  Human Kinetics.

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D.  (1999).  Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.  (2^nd ed.).  Champaign, IL:  Human Kinetics.

Williams, J.M. (Ed.).  (2001).  Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance.  Mountain View, CA:  Mayfield Publishing Company.