CHAPTER 2:  HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCING SP&EX BEHAVIOR

 

 

MOTIVATION 

 

• Motivation is the “why” behind behavior; what pushes us to do; causes behavior.
• Need is the state or condition which indicates the lack of something vital or desired which an organism will strive to obtain.
• Want indicates an existing need.
• Drive is the tendency to attain a goal to decrease or eliminate the need or relieve a person from an unpleasant condition.
• Motive is a thought/feelings/condition which arouses, maintains and directs behavior toward a goal.
• Goal is an object/situation toward which behavior is directed because it satisfies a need.
• Extrinsic Motivation (motivation from external forces such as prizes, rewards, and praise) versus Intrinsic Motivation (motivation from internal factors such as sense of well-being, self-esteem, confidence, and identity)

 

I.  Classification of Motives

 

A.  Physiological Motives  (body/tissues; innate; for survival; basic; primary; biological; unlearned motives)

 

1.      Hunger is due to low levels of glucose or blood sugar.  Eating is controlled by the hypothalamus.

a.      Ventromedial Nucleus (also, “Satiety Center”) turns off hunger.

b.      Hunger Center  gives the need to eat.

c.       General Hunger  is hunger felt because of the low levels of glucose

d.      Specific Hunger  are cravings you have for certain foods  (“Innate Wisdom of Body”)

2.      Thirst is due to low levels of water;  may be affected by social factors and other subliminal factors

3.      Sleep  (normal:  6-8 hours of sleep)

a.      Sleep Center  controls sleep;  damage to Reticular Activating Center leads to coma.

b.      Wakefulness Center  to control awareness

4.      Air Hunger  (air is mostly nitrogen and oxygen)

5.      Cold & Warmth  (37^oC = 98-99^oF)

6.      Pain Avoidance  (Pain is the early warning device for injury)

7.      Elimination Drives  (Get rid of body waste either through the bladder or the lower colon)

 

B.  Social Motives  (learned; meta-needs, secondary needs, derived motives; the more the need is satisfied, the stronger the social motive;  satisfying a need with reinforce it)

 

1.      Achievement Motive  (competition and accomplishment needs are normal among humans)

2.      Altruism Motive  (volunteer services; charity; giving something without expecting a reward)

3.      Affiliation Motive  (cliques, clubs, gangs, associations;  need to belong in a group)

4.      Social Approval Motive  (prestige from joining groups;  pleasing other people)

·        Self-Esteem  (increases when social approval is high)

5.      Status Motive  (achieve a respected position; be above or equal to respected people; prestige and power characterizes this motive)

 

II.  Sex Drive

·        Endocrine Glands Influence  (pituitary gland à gonadotropic hormone à gonads à testosterone (testes) and estrogen (ovary);  andrenocorticotropic hormone à adrenal cortex stimulation à cortisone (gives/increases sex drive))

a.  Nymphomania  (extremely high sex drive for women)

b.  Satyriasis  (extremely high sex drive for men)

c.  Frigidity  (extremely low sex drive for women)

d.  Impotence  (extremely low sex drive for men)

 

III.  Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

 

·        Persons have to achieve and satisfy the first and lowest need first before moving on to the next.

·        Very few people achieve the highest need, Self-Actualization, but it is not impossible to do so.

 

1.      Self-Actualization  (know self and world; create and appreciate beauty; inner-directed achiever; highest level of need)

2.      Self-Esteem  (success, self-worth; achievement; competency)

3.      Belongingness & Love  (give and receive love; affiliation)

4.      Safety  (avoid pain; gain comfort and security)

5.      Physiological  (to stay alive; lowest level of need)

 

IV.  Unconscious Motivation

 

·        Repression  (feelings and anxieties that are too great for the individual to handle were transferred from consciousness to unconsciousness;  defense mechanism)

 

1.      Signs  (denies certain behaviors, not admitting having certain emotions, inconsistencies in behavior)

2.      Subtle Indicators  (bizarre dreams, surprising fantasy, errors and slips in speech, writing, and gestures, tension-depicting postures, forgetfulness, accidents)

 

V.  Principles of Motivation

 

1.      Many are learned.  (same need but different motives; e.g., food preference would either be potato or rice)

2.      Can change.  (change because of dramatic and life-changing events)

3.      Arise from within and without.  (come from inside, a natural internal need; come from lacking something vital or desired)

4.      Underlying unity.  (many behaviors may come from 1 motive; many motives may be reflected in 1 behavior)

 

 

 

PARTICIPATION MOTIVATION

 

·        It refers to the basic motivational issue of why people participate in sport and exercise.

·        Several descriptive studies have yielded consistent results.  Children participate in sports for many different reasons, which fall into common dimensions.  Skill development, competence demonstration, and particularly excitement, challenge, and fun are important motives.

·        Adults and children are motivated to participate in sports for similar reasons, although health concerns are more important and skill development and competence are less relevant for adults in exercise settings than for children.

 

I.  Scalan’s Sport Commitment Model

 

·        The more athletes enjoy playing, the more they have invested in their sports, the more opportunities involvement offers, the more constrained they feel to continue playing, the less attractive their alternatives, and the greater their commitment.

 

1.      Sport enjoyment:  A positive affective response to the sport experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun.

2.      Involvement alternatives:  The attractiveness of the most preferred alternative(s) to continued participation in the current endeavor.

3.      Personal investments:  Resources invested in the activity that cannot be recovered if participation is discontinued.

4.      Social constraints:  Social expectations or norms that create feelings of obligation to continue the activity.

5.      Involvement opportunities:  Valued opportunities that are present only with continued involvement.

 

II.  Susan Butt’s Four Levels of Sport Motivation

           

1. Biological Motivations

·        The first major source of sport motivation; the life force or energy; the struggle for survival and the will to win

2. Psychological Motivations

·        Aggression (energetic, eager, active, and impulsive); conflict (unhappy, under pressure, prone to complain and make excuses); competence (mature, has self-insight, finds joy and challenge in sport)

3. Social Motivations

·        Competition (evolves from aggression and conflict); cooperation (evolves from competence)

·        Competitively motivated (external motivation); cooperatively motivated (internal motivation)

 

II.  Theories of Participation Motivation 

 

            To be discussed after the prelim.

 

III.  Excessive Participation: Exercise Addiction

 

·        Sometimes termed as “addiction,” a “dependence,” or a “commitment,” is a problem in itself. 

·        Health consequences:  Damage on muscles, joints, and tendons used in the sport as well as eating disorders

·        Psychological consequences:  Lack of holistic development and narrow focus on only one aspect of a beautifully complex life.

 

IV.  Achievement and Competitiveness

 

            To be discussed after the prelim.

 

 

 

 

 

References:

Cox. R.H.  (2002).  Sport psychology: Concepts and applications.  (5^th ed.).  Boston, MA:  McGraw Hill.

Gill, D.L.  (2000).  Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise.  (2^nd ed.).  Champaign, IL:  Human Kinetics.

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D.  (1999).  Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.  (2^nd ed.).  Champaign, IL:  Human Kinetics.

Williams, J.M. (Ed.).  (2001).  Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance.  Mountain View, CA:  Mayfield Publishing Company.