CHAPTER 2:  HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCING SP&EX BEHAVIOR

 

 

PERSONALITY

 

• Underlying, relatively stable, Y’l structures and processes that organize human experience and shape a person’s actions and reactions to his environment
• Sum total or overall pattern of Y’l characteristics and tendencies that make a person unique

 

I.   Biological Theories

 

1. Early Theories

·        Greeks believed in the 4 body fluids or “humor.”  Proportionality of these fluids result to varying temperaments.

·        However, no physiological characteristic explains all behavior.  Human behavior is too complicated and complex to explain in a few biological states.

·        The unending discussion on Nature versus Nurture:

§         Nature-based personality suggests that components of personality are inherited.  Thus, personality is governed by the genes or DNA.

§         Nurture-based personality suggests that components of personality are learned.  Thus, personality is governed by the environment and one’s experiences.

§         Nurture-based personality is supported by John Locke who proposed the concept of Tabula Rasa which states that humans are born like empty vessels to be filled with experience.

2. William Sheldon’s Constitutional Theory

§         Somatotyping to rate physique and 3 dimensions of endomorphy (roundness), ectomorphy (linearity), and mesomorphy (masculinity).  These terms are borrowed from the 3 germ layers.

§         Endomorph has Viscerotonic temperament characterized by affectionate, social, relaxed personality as well as enjoyment of physical comfort and sleep.

§         Ectomorph has Cerebrotonic temperament characterized by tense, solitude, introversion, artistic, and intellectual personality.

§         Mesomorph has Somatotonic temperament characterized by aggressive, dominant, and risk-loving personality.

§         No longer prominent today due to very low reliability.

3. Current biological theories of personality

§         Jerome Kagan proposed the genetic aspects of temperament, specifically shyness versus outgoingness.

§         Marvin Zuckerman proposed sensation-seeking theory; the biological factors in Sp&ExY.

·        Personality is determined by multiple, interdependent factors, not simply biological ones.

 

II.   Psychological Models of Personality Structure

 

1.      Psychodynamic and Organismic Theory

·        Sigmund Freud (Psychodynamic or Psychoanalytic Theory) proposed that personality develops through resolution of conflicts as ego arbitrates id and superego.

·        Id is the source of impulses and is governed by the Pleasure Principle.

·        Ego is the manager of the personality and is governed by the Reality Principle.

·        Superego is the conscience of the personality.

·        Abraham Maslow (Self-Actualization Theory or Organismic Theory) proposed that personality develops following the hierarchy of needs.  One must satisfy the lower levels before moving on to the next level.  The highest level of need is Self-Actualization which is the ultimate goal of an individual.  Very few people could accomplish this need characterized by noble concepts like altruism, fulfillment, and completeness of personality.

2.      Social Learning Theory

·        Albert Bandura proposed that the psychological functioning is explained in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction of personal and environmental determinants.

·        Personality is formed by imitating a model (anyone or anything that displays admired or desirable behavior to be adopted in the personality).  Thus, it is also called Observational Learning Theory.

·        It is related to Burrhus Frederick Skinner’s Behaviorism which states that people learn through reinforcements and punishments as consequences of certain behaviors to be learned.  This theory however discounts personality and treats learning of humans as machine-like.

3.      Personality Traits or Dispositions

·        Traits are relatively stable, highly consistent attributes that exert widely generalized causal effects on behavior.

·        Trait Theory implies consistency and generalizability of behavior.

·        State Personality, on the other hand, refers to unstable, constantly changing attributes that affect behavior.

4.      Interactionist Approaches

·        SpY shifted from the focus on Trait Theories to State Theories.  Also, from Trait Theories to Social Learning Theory.

·       

B  =  f (P , E)

Moreover, today SpYists prefer considering interrelated roles of personality factors and situational factors as codeterminants of behavior.  One theorist who supports this notion is Kurt Lewin who believes that behavior is a function of person and environment. 

 

5.      “Big Five” Model of Personality

·        Five factors of personality:  Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience/ Culture/ Intellect, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness

·        Sir Francis Galton is the 1^st to categorize personality and proposed 1^st dimensional models

·        Eysenck’s 3 Factors of Personality (Psychoticism-Extraversion-Neuroticism) was the basis of the Big Five Model

 

III.   Personality Measures

 

1.      Psychometric Tests

·        Paper and pencil tests used to measure factors of the personality.

·        A battery of these tests provide a good gauge of the relevant characteristics of an athlete.

·        Examples:  16 PF, MMPI, STAI, SCAT

2.      Projective Tests

·        Tests using ambiguous stimuli to which a person “projects” deep aspects of his personality.

·        This kind of test is suggested if the desired factor of the personality to be measured is very personal or very controversial.

·        Examples:  Rorschach Inkblot Test, DAP, HTP

 

IV.   Personality Research in Sp&ExY

 

1.      Personality Profile of Athletes

·        Griffith’s Griffith List of characteristics of elite athletes:  Ruggedness, Courage, Intelligence, Exuberance, Buoyance, Emotional Adjustment, Optimism, Conscientiousness, Alertness, Loyalty, and Respect for Authority

·        Ogilvie’s et al. Athletic Motivation Inventory (AMI) characteristics of elite athletes:  Drive, Determination, Leadership, Aggressiveness, Guilt Proneness, Emmotional Control, Self-Confidence, Conscientiousness, Mental Toughness, Trust, and Coachability

2.      Mental Health Model

·        Positive Mental Health and Athletic Success are directly related.

·        Psychopathology and success are inversely related.

·        “Iceberg Profile” of Morgan:  Successful athletes possess more positive mental health characteristics and fewer negative mental health characteristics than the general population.  However, this does not directly lead to success.  It still depends on the ability of athletes to use these characteristics to their advantage.

 

V.   Use of Personality Measures to Screen Athletes

• The use of personality measures to screen athletes is not recommended.  They are limited or weak predictors of success.
• Results of these measures cannot justify dropping athletes
• Personality measures must be used to help current athletes to determine the cause of negative characteristics as well as improve positive characteristics.

 

VI.  Sport-Specific Psychological Skills Measures

• It is recommended to use sport-specific psychological tests over general ones.

Examples:

1.      Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports (PSIS)

·        Concentration, Anxiety Control, Confidence, Mental Preparation, Motivation, and Team Emphasis

2.      Athletic Coping Skills Inventory  (ACSI)

·        Like PSIS but superior in psychometric properties

 

VII.   Effects of Sp&Ex on Personality

·        Many claim Sp&Ex improve character and values but many researches suggest that they decrease ethical behavior and values like fair play.

·        Difficult to affect Trait or overall personality

·        May improve State personality

 

 

 

References:

Cox. R.H.  (2002).  Sport psychology: Concepts and applications.  (5^th ed.).  Boston, MA:  McGraw Hill.

Gill, D.L.  (2000).  Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise.  (2^nd ed.).  Champaign, IL:  Human Kinetics.

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D.  (1999).  Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.  (2^nd ed.).  Champaign, IL:  Human Kinetics.

Williams, J.M. (Ed.).  (2001).  Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance.  Mountain View, CA:  Mayfield Publishing Company.