Sport Psychology

CHAPTER 2: HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCING SP&EX BEHAVIOR

EMOTIONS AND STRESS

Emotion is a complex set of interactions among subjective and objective factors, mediated by neural/hormonal systems, which can:

give rise to affective experiences such as feelings of arousal, pleasure/displeasure
generate cognitive processes
activate widespread physiological adjustments to the arousing conditions
lead to behavior that is often, but not always, expressive, goal-oriented, and adaptive

Arousal is associated with the intensity dimension of behavior, defined as a general state of activation ranging on a continuum from deep sleep to extreme excitement.

Anxiety is arousal with negative (avoidance) direction.

Stress according to Reyes (2002): Stress is “the body’s response to any demand or pressure” (Smith, S. & Pergola, J., 1991). Stress occurs when there is “substantial imbalance between environmental demand and the perceived response capability of the focal organism” (McGrath, 1970, p.17). The demands imposed on an individual that have potential to cause stress are called stressors. Eustress is the stress that result to desirable outcomes, wherein they serve as motivators to perform while distress is the stress that result to undesirable effects (Greenberg, 1999; Girdano, Everly, & Dusek, 1990). Distress, however, has been made synonymous to stress due to the increasingly controversial effects of distress on the human health.

James-Lange Theory (1884): Bodily sensations stem directly from perceptions, and our awareness of the physiological changes is emotion. Thus, happiness comes from smiling and not vice versa.

Cooper-Cummings Theory: Adjustment and coping strategies will lead to success over stress. Otherwise, stress will lead to continued stress and even burnout.

Effects of Exercise on Negative Emotion: In studying effects of exercise on negative emotion, researches have taken two basic approaches – one focusing on chronic effects (associated with extended training or long-term participation) and the other on acute effects (a single exercise session). Acute exercise may be associated with reduced anxiety but does not appear to influence other affective states.

Positive Emotions in Sport and Exercise:

1. Enjoyment in Sport – Physical activity is associated with decreased anxiety and stress. Enjoyment in sport and exercise may explain this phenomenon. Enjoyment is an optimal psychological state that leads to performing an activity primarily for its own sake and is associated with positive feeling states (Kimiecik & Harris, 1996).

2. Flow in Sport – Flow occurs when the performer is totally connected to the performance, in a situation in which skills equal challenges. Most elite athletes, and even most participants, can relate to flow. Athletes may recall a peak experience – a time when everything just came together and they were totally immersed in the activity. Flow is perhaps the ultimate positive state.

Stress Management Strategies: Stress must be managed to moderate levels – enough to motivate you but not too much to set you back. The goal of stress management, therefore, is not to eliminate stress or its causes, rather to manage stress and utilize it, when necessary, to serve as one of the factors to motivate an individual to achieve peak performance (Greenberg, 1999). There are two (2) major categories of coping or stress management strategies:

1. Emotion-Focused Interventions. These are designed to moderate emotional arousal produced by the exposure to stressors (Auerbach & Gramling, 1998). These coping strategies provide a short-term solution to managing stressors that cannot be controlled instrumentally. Emotion-focused coping include strategies such as, progressive relaxation, meditation, yoga, autogenic training and imagery, biofeedback, diaphragmatic breathing, body scanning, massage, acupressure, stretching, quieting reflex, instant calming sequence (ICS), stress inoculation training, aerobic exercise, music therapy, mindfulness, and prayer.

2. Problem-Focused Interventions. These long-term approaches provide an individual “a repertoire of skills that enables one to manage problematic situations, building on and refining those skills, learning when and where they will be effective, and actually implementing them when they are called for” (Auerbach & Gramling, 1998, p. 138). Problem-focused strategies include interventions such as, training on social skills, assertiveness, time management, conflict management, and change management (Auerbach & Gramling, 1998; Greenberg, 1999).

References:

Cox. R.H. (2002). Sport psychology: Concepts and applications. (5^th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.

Gill, D.L. (2000). Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise. (2^nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Reyes, G.T. (2002). Experiential-transformative training on occupational stress management in a Philippine bank workforce: An experimental study. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Santo Tomas.

Weinberg, R. & Gould, D. (1999). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. (2^nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Williams, J.M. (Ed.). (2001). Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.